Center for Applied Linguistics

This article seeks to develop Translanguaging as a theory of language and discuss the theoretical motivations behind and the added values of the concept. I contextualize Translanguaging in the linguistic realities of the 21st century, especially the fluid and dynamic practices that transcend the boundaries between named languages, language varieties, and language and other semiotic systems. I highlight the contributions Translanguaging as a theoretical concept can make to the debates over the Language and Thought and the Modularity of Mind hypotheses. One particular aspect of multilingual language users' social interaction that I want to emphasize is its multimodal and multisensory nature. I elaborate on two related concepts: Translanguaging Space and Translanguaging Instinct, to underscore the necessity to bridge the artificial and ideological divides between the so-called sociocultural and the cognitive approaches to Translanguaging practices. In doing so, I respond to some of the criticisms and confusions about the notion of Translanguaging.

1. Introduction 2. Theorizing Translingual Practice 3. Recovering Translingual Practices 4. English as Translingual 5. Translingual Negotiation Strategies 6. Pluralizing Academic Writing 7. Negotiating Translingual Literacy 8. Reconfiguring Translocal Spaces 9. Developing Performative Competence 10. Toward a Dialogical Cosmopolitanism Notes References

Contents: P. McCardle, Foreword. Preface. Introduction to the Volume. D. August, T. Shanahan, Introduction and Methodology. D. August, Demographic Overview. Part I: Development of Literacy in Second-Language Learners. N. Lesaux, E. Geva, Synthesis: Development of Literacy in Language-Minority Students. N. Lesaux, with K. Koda, L.S. Siegel, T. Shanahan, Development of Literacy. E. Geva, Second-Language Oral Proficiency and Second-Language Literacy. Part I References. Part II: Cross-Linguistic Relationships in Second-Language Learners. F. Genesee, E. Geva, C. Dressler, M.L. Kamil, Synthesis: Cross-Linguistic Relationships. F. Genesee, E. Geva, Cross-Linguistic Relationships in Working Memory, Phonological Processes, and Oral Language. E. Geva, F. Genesee, First-Language Oral Proficiency and Second-Language Literacy. C. Dressler, with M.L. Kamil, First-and Second-Language Literacy. Part II References. Part III: Sociocultural Contexts and Literacy Development. C. Goldenberg, R.S. Rueda, D. August, Synthesis: Sociocultural Contexts and Literacy Development. C. Goldenberg, R.S. Rueda, D. August, Social and Cultural Influences on the Literacy Attainment of Language-Minority Children and Youth. R.S. Rueda, D. August, C. Goldenberg, The Social and Cultural Context in Which Children Acquire Literacy. Part III References. Part IV: Educating Language-Minority Students: Instructional Approaches and Professional Development. D. August, T. Shanahan, Synthesis: Instruction and Professional Development. D.J. Francis, N. Lesaux, D. August, Language of Instruction. T. Shanahan, I.L. Beck, Effective Literacy Teaching for English-Language Learners. D. August, with F. Erickson, Qualitative Studies of Classroom and School Practices. D. August, with L.S. Siegel, Literacy Instruction for Language-Minority Children in Special Education Settings. D. August, M. Calderon, Teacher Beliefs and Professional Development. Part IV References. Part V: Student Assessment. G.E. Garcia, G. McKoon, D. August, Synthesis: Language and Literacy Assessment. G.E. Garcia, G. McKoon, Language and Literacy Assessment of Language-Minority Students. Part V References. Part VI: Cross-Cutting Themes and Future Research Directions. C. Snow, Cross-Cutting Themes and Future Research Directions. Biographical Sketches.

This paper is concerned with the social mechanisms of linguistic change, and we begin by noting the distinction drawn by Bynon (1977) between two quite different approaches to the study of linguistic change. The first and more idealized, associated initially with traditional nineteenth century historical linguistics, involves the study of successive ‘states of the language’, states reconstructed by the application of comparative techniques to necessarily partial historical records. Generalizations (in the form of laws) about the relationships between these states may then be made, and more recently the specification of ‘possible’ and ‘impossible’ processes of change has been seen as an important theoretical goal.

This volume reports the findings of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. The formal charge to the panel—a distinguished group of expert researchers in reading, language, bilingualism, research methods, and education—was to identify, assess, and synthesize research on the education of language-minority children and youth with respect to their attainment of literacy. Funding for the project was provided to the Center for Applied Linguistics and SRI International by the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences and the Office of English Language Acquisition, with additional funding from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development provided through the U.S. Department of Education. The authors review the state of knowledge on the development of literacy in language-minority children and youth, organized around five specific themes:*Development of Literacy in Second-Language Learners;*Cross-linguistic Relationships in Second-Language Learners;*Sociocultural Contexts and Literacy Development*Educating Language-Minority Students: Instruction and Professional Development; and*Student Assessment Each part begins with a synthesis chapter that spells out the research questions for the chapters in that part, provides background information, describes the methodology used, summarizes the empirical findings reported, addresses methodological issues, and makes recommendations for future research. The following chapters provide more detail on the individual studies reviewed for specific research questions. The volume includes two opening chapters, “Introduction and Methodology” and “Demographic Overview”; a closing chapter that summarizes the report, identifies cross-cutting themes, and makes recommendations for future research; and a CD-ROM providing a searchable database of research references. The audiences for this volume include researchers interested in the development of literacy in language-minority children and youth as well as those studying literacy more generally, and those concerned with improving the education of this population of students.

Abstract We present a detailed process theory of the moment‐by‐moment working‐memory retrievals and associated control structure that subserve sentence comprehension. The theory is derived from the application of independently motivated principles of memory and cognitive skill to the specialized task of sentence parsing. The resulting theory construes sentence processing as a series of skilled associative memory retrievals modulated by similarity‐based interference and fluctuating activation. The cognitive principles are formalized in computational form in the Adaptive Control of Thought–Rational (ACT–R) architecture, and our process model is realized in ACT–R. We present the results of 6 sets of simulations: 5 simulation sets provide quantitative accounts of the effects of length and structural interference on both unambiguous and garden‐path structures. A final simulation set provides a graded taxonomy of double center embeddings ranging from relatively easy to extremely difficult. The explanation of center‐embedding difficulty is a novel one that derives from the model' complete reliance on discriminating retrieval cues in the absence of an explicit representation of serial order information. All fits were obtained with only 1 free scaling parameter fixed across the simulations; all other parameters were ACT–R defaults. The modeling results support the hypothesis that fluctuating activation and similarity‐based interference are the key factors shaping working memory in sentence processing. We contrast the theory and empirical predictions with several related accounts of sentence‐processing complexity.

This volume inserts the place of the local in theorizing about language policies and practices in applied linguistics. While the effects of globalization around the world are being discussed in such diverse circles as corporations, law firms, and education, and while the spread of English has come to largely benefit those in positions of power, relatively little has been said about the impact of globalization at the local level, directly or indirectly. Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice is unique in focusing specifically on the outcomes of globalization in and among the communities affected by these changes. The authors make a case for why it is important for local social practices, communicative conventions, linguistic realities, and knowledge paradigms to actively inform language policies and practices for classrooms and communities in specific contexts, and to critically inform those pertaining to other communities. Engaging with the dominant paradigms in the discipline of applied linguistics, the chapters include research relating to second language acquisition, sociolinguistics, literacy, and language planning. The majority of chapters are case studies of specific contexts and communities, focused on situations of language teaching. Beyond their local contexts these studies are important for initiating discussion of their relevance for other, different communities and contexts. Taken together, the chapters in this book approach the task of reclaiming and making space for the local by means of negotiating with the present and the global. They illuminate the paradox that the local contains complex values of diversity, multilingualism, and plurality that can help to reconceive the multilingual society and education for postmodern times.

(1993). Constructing Social Identity: A Language Socialization Perspective. Research on Language and Social Interaction: Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 287-306.

The study of phonotactics is a central topic in phonology. We propose a theory of phonotactic grammars and a learning algorithm that constructs such grammars from positive evidence. Our grammars consist of constraints that are assigned numerical weights according to the principle of maximum entropy. The grammars assess possible words on the basis of the weighted sum of their constraint violations. The learning algorithm yields grammars that can capture both categorical and gradient phonotactic patterns. The algorithm is not provided with constraints in advance, but uses its own resources to form constraints and weight them. A baseline model, in which Universal Grammar is reduced to a feature set and an SPE-style constraint format, suffices to learn many phonotactic phenomena. In order for the model to learn nonlocal phenomena such as stress and vowel harmony, it must be augmented with autosegmental tiers and metrical grids. Our results thus offer novel, learning-theoretic support for such representations. We apply the model in a variety of learning simulations, showing that the learned grammars capture the distributional generalizations of these languages and accurately predict the findings of a phonotactic experiment.

ABSTRACTS Gaps in reading performance between Anglo and Latino children are associated with gaps in vocabulary knowledge. An intervention was designed to enhance fifth graders' academic vocabulary. The meanings of academically useful words were taught together with strategies for using information from context, from morphology, from knowledge about multiple meanings, and from cognates to infer word meaning. Among the principles underlying the intervention were that new words should be encountered in meaningful text, that native Spanish speakers should have access to the text's meaning through Spanish, that words should be encountered in varying contexts, and that word knowledge involves spelling, pronunciation, morphology, and syntax as well as depth of meaning. Fifth graders in the intervention group showed greater growth than the comparison group on knowledge of the words taught, on depth of vocabulary knowledge, on understanding multiple meanings, and on reading comprehension. The intervention effects were as large for the English‐language learners (ELLs) as for the English‐only speakers (EOs), though the ELLs scored lower on all pre‐ and posttest measures. The results show the feasibility of improving comprehension outcomes for students in mixed ELL‐EO classes, by teaching word analysis and vocabulary learning strategies.

The book provides a review of scientific research on the learning outcomes of students with limited or no proficiency in English in U.S. schools. Research on students in kindergarten to grade 12 is reviewed. The primary chapters of the book focus on these students' acquisition of oral language skills in English, their development of literacy (reading & writing) skills in English, instructional issues in teaching literacy, and achievement in academic domains (i.e., mathematics, science, and reading). The reviews and analyses of the research are relatively technical with a focus on research quality, design characteristics, and statistical analyses. The book provides a set of summary tables that give details about each study, including full references, characteristics of the students in the research, assessment tools and procedures, and results. A concluding chapter summarizes the major issues discussed and makes recommendations about particular areas that need further research.

Abstract is not available

Ronald Wardhaugh , An introduction to sociolinguistics . 5th ed. Oxford & Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. Pp. 418. Pb $41.95. Wardhaugh's textbook has been one of the most popular ones in sociolinguistics for two decades. Its fifth edition was published in 2006, four years after the fourth and 20 years after the first. The 16 chapters are divided as follows: 1, introduction; 2, languages, dialects and varieties; 3, pidgins and creoles; 4, codes; 5, speech communities; 6, 7, and 8, variation and change; 9, words and culture; 10, ethnographies; 11, solidarity and politeness; 12, talk and action; 13, gender; 14, disadvantage; 15, planning; 16, conclusion. The coverage of sociolinguistic subjects is broad: multilingualism and its consequences, regional and social dialectology.

English language learners (ELLs) who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than their English-only peers. Such students are likely to perform poorly on assessments in these areas and are at risk of being diagnosed as learning disabled. In this article, we review the research on methods to develop the vocabulary knowledge of ELLs and present lessons learned from the research concerning effective instructional practices for ELLs. The review suggests that several strategies are especially valuable for ELLs, including taking advantage of students' first language if the language shares cognates with English; ensuring that ELLs know the meaning of basic words, and providing sufficient review and reinforcement. Finally, we discuss challenges in designing effective vocabulary instruction for ELLs. Important issues are determining which words to teach, taking into account the large deficits in second-language vocabulary of ELLs, and working with the limited time that is typically available for direct instruction in vocabulary.

Natural language makes considerable use of recurrent formulaic patterns of words. This article triangulates the construct of formula from corpus linguistic, psycholinguistic, and educational perspectives. It describes the corpus linguistic extraction of pedagogically useful formulaic sequences for academic speech and writing. It determines English as a second language (ESL) and English for academic purposes (EAP) instructors' evaluations of their pedagogical importance. It summarizes three experiments which show that different aspects of formulaicity affect the accuracy and fluency of processing of these formulas in native speakers and in advanced L2 learners of English. The language processing tasks were selected to sample an ecologically valid range of language processing skills: spoken and written, production and comprehension. Processing in all experiments was affected by various corpus‐derived metrics: length, frequency, and mutual information (MI), but to different degrees in the different populations. For native speakers, it is predominantly the MI of the formula which determines processability; for nonnative learners of the language, it is predominantly the frequency of the formula. The implications of these findings are discussed for (a) the psycholinguistic validity of corpus‐derived formulas, (b) a model of their acquisition, (c) ESL and EAP instruction and the prioritization of which formulas to teach.

Contents Preface Chapter 1: Defining a Sociocultural Perspective Changing Points of View Teachers as Learners of Teaching Language as Social Practice Teaching as Dialogic Mediation Macro-Structures and the L2 Teaching Profession Inquiry-Based Approaches to Professional Development Future Challenges for L2 Teacher Education Chapter 2: Shifting Epistemologies in Teacher Education Overcoming a Positivistic Epistemological Perspective Shifting towards an Interpretative Epistemological Perspective Emerging Research on Teacher Cognition Reconceptualizing the Knowledge-base of L2 Teacher Education A Sociocultural Perspective on L2 Teacher Education Chapter 3: Teachers as Learners of Teaching Understanding Teacher Learning from a Sociocultural Perspective Seeing Teaching Learning Teacher-Authored Accounts of Professional Development Mediational Means in the Zone of Proximal Development Disciplinary Knowledge and Concept Development Transformation of Activity: Teacher Learning - Student Learning Chapter 4: Language as Social Practice Defining Knowledge About Language Language as Social Practice Embracing Language as Social Practice in L2 Teacher Education Developing Teachers' Awareness of Language as Social Practice Analyzing E-mail Messages Analyzing Classroom Transcripts Building Curriculum from Contexts of Use Chapter 5: Teaching as Dialogic Mediation Teaching, Learning, and Development The Development of Conceptual Thinking Reconceptualizing the Concepts of Methodology, Language', and Teaching Reconceptualizing Reading Comprehension Instruction Scaffolded Learning and Assisting Performance Teachers' Questioning Patterns Maximizing Classroom Interaction Chapter 6: Macro-Structures and the Second Language Teaching Profession Activity Theory: An Overview Educational Reforms Policies English Language Educational Reform Policies in South Korea Contradictions and Interventions Redesigning a School Community: The Case of a Finnish Middle School Implementing Educational Reform Policies: The Teaching Practicum in South Korea The Power of High-Stakes Language Testing Constructing a Student: The Case of Joon Constructing a Student: The Case of Noelle Chapter 7: Inquiry-based Approaches to Professional Development The Narrative Nature of Teachers' Accounts The School Context and Culture in which Teachers' Accounts Emerge Linkages between Teachers' Accounts and Professional Discourses The Zone of Proximal Development as a Mediational Space Models of Inquiry-Based Professional Development Critical Friends Groups Peer Coaching Lesson Study Groups Cooperative Development Teacher Study Groups Chapter 8: Future Challenges for Second Language Teacher Education 'Located' Second Language Teacher Education Linking Teacher Learning and Student Learning Intellectual Tools of Inquiry vs. The Politics of Accountability Subject Index Author Index

A number of disparate approaches to language, ranging from cognitive linguistics to stochastic implementations of optimality theory, have challenged the classical distinction between knowledge of language and use of language. Supporters of such approaches point to the functional motivation of grammatical structure, language users’ sensitivity to the frequency of occurrence of grammatical elements, and the great disparity between sentences that grammars generate and speakers’ actual utterances. In this article I defend the classical position, and provide evidence from a number of sources that speakers mentally represent full grammatical structure, however fragmentary their utterances might be. The article also questions the relevance of most corpus-based frequency and probability studies to models of individual grammatical competence. I propose a scenario for the origins and evolution of language that helps to explain why grammar and usage are as distinct as they are.

Shijie Wu, Mark Dredze. Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP). 2019.

The Germanic languages, which include English, German, Dutch and Scandinavian, belong to the best-studied languages in the world, but the picture of their parent language, Proto-Germanic, continues to evolve. This new etymological dictionary offers a wealth of material collected from old and new Germanic sources, ranging from Gothic to Elfdalian, from Old English to the Swiss dialects, and incorporates several important advances in Proto-Germanic phonology, morphology and derivation. With its approximately 2,800 headwords and at least as many derivations, it covers the larger part of the Proto-Germanic vocabulary, and attempts to trace it back to its Proto-Indo-European foundations. The result is a landmark etymological study indispensable to Indo-Europeanists and Germanicists, as well as to the non-specialist.

When the history of historical linguistics in the twentieth century is written, one recurrent theme will surely be the hypothesis that certain types of change are unidirectional. This hypothesis takes many forms, but is probably most widely associated with historical cross-linguistic, typological work, much of it devoted to the correlations among changes in meaning and morphosyntax known as grammaticalisation (see e.g. Greenberg 1978; Lehmann 1995 [1982]; Hopper and Traugott 1993; Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994). Critics of the hypothesis have pointed out that unidirectionality is not exceptionless and can be reversed (Joseph and Janda 1988; Newmeyer 1998; Lass 2000, among others). Being social as well as cognitive, and subject to contingencies such as production, perception, transmission and social evaluation, no change is likely to be exceptionless. Unidirectionality is a strong tendency manifested by particular sets of changes. The present study is a further contribution to the debate on unidirectionality, with focus on evidence for it in semantic change. The hypothesis is that intersubjectification, in the sense of the development of meanings that encode speaker/writers' attention to the cognitive stances and social identities of addressees, arises out of and depends crucially on subjectification. Schematically, subjectification > intersubjectification, not intersubjectification> subjectification. This is a semasiological hypothesis about constraints on the kind of changes that individual lexemes may undergo. It also has implications for onomasiological constraints on shifts of meaning from one conceptual domain to another, e.g. from the domain of spatial position to politeness marker in Japanese, but not vice versa.