Clarkson University

Abstract Black carbon aerosol plays a unique and important role in Earth's climate system. Black carbon is a type of carbonaceous material with a unique combination of physical properties. This assessment provides an evaluation of black‐carbon climate forcing that is comprehensive in its inclusion of all known and relevant processes and that is quantitative in providing best estimates and uncertainties of the main forcing terms: direct solar absorption; influence on liquid, mixed phase, and ice clouds; and deposition on snow and ice. These effects are calculated with climate models, but when possible, they are evaluated with both microphysical measurements and field observations. Predominant sources are combustion related, namely, fossil fuels for transportation, solid fuels for industrial and residential uses, and open burning of biomass. Total global emissions of black carbon using bottom‐up inventory methods are 7500 Gg yr −1 in the year 2000 with an uncertainty range of 2000 to 29000. However, global atmospheric absorption attributable to black carbon is too low in many models and should be increased by a factor of almost 3. After this scaling, the best estimate for the industrial‐era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W m −2 with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W m −2 . Total direct forcing by all black carbon sources, without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W m −2 . Direct radiative forcing alone does not capture important rapid adjustment mechanisms. A framework is described and used for quantifying climate forcings, including rapid adjustments. The best estimate of industrial‐era climate forcing of black carbon through all forcing mechanisms, including clouds and cryosphere forcing, is +1.1 W m −2 with 90% uncertainty bounds of +0.17 to +2.1 W m −2 . Thus, there is a very high probability that black carbon emissions, independent of co‐emitted species, have a positive forcing and warm the climate. We estimate that black carbon, with a total climate forcing of +1.1 W m −2 , is the second most important human emission in terms of its climate forcing in the present‐day atmosphere; only carbon dioxide is estimated to have a greater forcing. Sources that emit black carbon also emit other short‐lived species that may either cool or warm climate. Climate forcings from co‐emitted species are estimated and used in the framework described herein. When the principal effects of short‐lived co‐emissions, including cooling agents such as sulfur dioxide, are included in net forcing, energy‐related sources (fossil fuel and biofuel) have an industrial‐era climate forcing of +0.22 (−0.50 to +1.08) W m −2 during the first year after emission. For a few of these sources, such as diesel engines and possibly residential biofuels, warming is strong enough that eliminating all short‐lived emissions from these sources would reduce net climate forcing (i.e., produce cooling). When open burning emissions, which emit high levels of organic matter, are included in the total, the best estimate of net industrial‐era climate forcing by all short‐lived species from black‐carbon‐rich sources becomes slightly negative (−0.06 W m −2 with 90% uncertainty bounds of −1.45 to +1.29 W m −2 ). The uncertainties in net climate forcing from black‐carbon‐rich sources are substantial, largely due to lack of knowledge about cloud interactions with both black carbon and co‐emitted organic carbon. In prioritizing potential black‐carbon mitigation actions, non‐science factors, such as technical feasibility, costs, policy design, and implementation feasibility play important roles. The major sources of black carbon are presently in different stages with regard to the feasibility for near‐term mitigation. This assessment, by evaluating the large number and complexity of the associated physical and radiative processes in black‐carbon climate forcing, sets a baseline from which to improve future climate forcing estimates.

Abstract Recent advances in the exploitation of localized surface plasmons (charge density oscillations confined to metallic nanoparticles and nanostructures) in nanoscale optics and photonics, as well as in the construction of sensors and biosensors, are reviewed here. In particular, subsequent to brief surveys of the most‐commonly used methods of preparation and arraying of materials with localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), and of the optical manifestations of LSPR, attention will be focused on the exploitation of metallic nanostructures as waveguides; as optical transmission, information storage, and nanophotonic devices; as switches; as resonant light scatterers (employed in the different near‐field scanning optical microscopies); and finally as sensors and biosensors.

A common property of many large networks, including the Internet, is that the connectivity of the various nodes follows a scale-free power-law distribution, $P(k){\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}=\phantom{\rule{0ex}{0ex}}ck}^{\ensuremath{-}\ensuremath{\alpha}}$. We study the stability of such networks with respect to crashes, such as random removal of sites. Our approach, based on percolation theory, leads to a general condition for the critical fraction of nodes, ${p}_{c}$, that needs to be removed before the network disintegrates. We show analytically and numerically that for $\ensuremath{\alpha}\ensuremath{\le}3$ the transition never takes place, unless the network is finite. In the special case of the physical structure of the Internet $(\ensuremath{\alpha}\ensuremath{\approx}2.5)$, we find that it is impressively robust, with ${p}_{c}>0.99$.

Plasma-liquid interactions represent a growing interdisciplinary area of research involving plasma science, fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, photolysis, multiphase chemistry and aerosol science. This review provides an assessment of the state-of-the-art of this multidisciplinary area and identifies the key research challenges. The developments in diagnostics, modeling and further extensions of cross section and reaction rate databases that are necessary to address these challenges are discussed. The review focusses on non-equilibrium plasmas.

We study the tolerance of random networks to intentional attack, whereby a fraction p of the most connected sites is removed. We focus on scale-free networks, having connectivity distribution P(k) approximately k(-alpha), and use percolation theory to study analytically and numerically the critical fraction p(c) needed for the disintegration of the network, as well as the size of the largest connected cluster. We find that even networks with alpha < or = 3, known to be resilient to random removal of sites, are sensitive to intentional attack. We also argue that, near criticality, the average distance between sites in the spanning (largest) cluster scales with its mass, M, as square root of [M], rather than as log (k)M, as expected for random networks away from criticality.

Purpose This research aims to extend the “collaborative paradigm” proposed by others in prior research beyond a supply chain's core operations. To date, this paradigm has generated relatively little empirical research on peripheral, non‐core areas such the natural environment. Antecedents (both plant‐level and supply chain characteristics) of green supply chain practices (GSCP) are examined. Among possible antecedents, prior research pointed to supply chain integration – both logistical (tactical level) and technological (strategic level) – as a potentially important determinant of green practices. Design/methodology/approach Green practices are defined along the two dimensions of environmental collaboration and monitoring. The empirical analysis used data from 84 plants in North America surveyed in 2002. Validity and reliability of scales for new and existing constructs were assessed through factor analysis. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test the hypotheses for the antecedents of GSCP. Findings Technological integration with primary suppliers and major customers was positively linked to environmental monitoring and collaboration. For logistical integration, a linkage was found only with environmental monitoring of suppliers. Finally, as the supply base was reduced, the extent of environmental collaboration with primary suppliers increased. Research limitations/implications Greater supply chain integration can benefit environment management in operations, and the collaborative paradigm can be extended to this domain. A limitation is that the empirical analysis focused on one industry representing a single echelon. Originality/value This is one of the few studies that conceptualize and empirically test GSCP, and consider both and separately upstream and downstream interactions in the supply chain.

Fractal structures are found everywhere in nature, and as a consequence anomalous diffusion has far reaching implications in a host of phenomena. This book describes diffusion and transport in disordered media such as fractals, porous rocks and random resistor networks. Divided into four Parts, Part I contains material of general interest to statistical physics: fractals, percolation theory, regular random walks and diffusion, continuous time random walks and Lévy walks and flights. Part II covers anomalous diffusion in fractals and disordered media, while Part III serves as an introduction to the kinetics of diffusion-limited reactions. Part IV discusses the problem of diffusion-limited coalescence in one dimension. This book will be of particular interest to researchers requiring a clear introduction to the field. It will also be of interest to graduate students studying in areas of physics, chemistry, and engineering.

The theory of Finite Size Scaling describes a build-up of the bulk properties when a small system is increased in size. This description is particularly important in strongly correlated systems where critical fluctuations develop with increasing system size, including phase transition points, polymer conformations. Since numerical computer simulations are always done with finite samples, they rely on the Finite Size Scaling theory for data extrapolation and analysis. With the advent of large scale computing in recent years, the use of the size-scaling methods has become increasingly important.

Exposure to ambient air pollution is a major risk factor for global disease. Assessment of the impacts of air pollution on population health and evaluation of trends relative to other major risk factors requires regularly updated, accurate, spatially resolved exposure estimates. We combined satellite-based estimates, chemical transport model simulations, and ground measurements from 79 different countries to produce global estimates of annual average fine particle (PM2.5) and ozone concentrations at 0.1° × 0.1° spatial resolution for five-year intervals from 1990 to 2010 and the year 2013. These estimates were applied to assess population-weighted mean concentrations for 1990-2013 for each of 188 countries. In 2013, 87% of the world's population lived in areas exceeding the World Health Organization Air Quality Guideline of 10 μg/m(3) PM2.5 (annual average). Between 1990 and 2013, global population-weighted PM2.5 increased by 20.4% driven by trends in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China. Decreases in population-weighted mean concentrations of PM2.5 were evident in most high income countries. Population-weighted mean concentrations of ozone increased globally by 8.9% from 1990-2013 with increases in most countries-except for modest decreases in North America, parts of Europe, and several countries in Southeast Asia.

We present an effective immunization strategy for computer networks and populations with broad and, in particular, scale-free degree distributions. The proposed strategy, acquaintance immunization, calls for the immunization of random acquaintances of random nodes (individuals). The strategy requires no knowledge of the node degrees or any other global knowledge, as do targeted immunization strategies. We study analytically the critical threshold for complete immunization. We also study the strategy with respect to the susceptible-infected-removed epidemiological model. We show that the immunization threshold is dramatically reduced with the suggested strategy, for all studied cases.

Persulfate is the newest oxidant that is being used for in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) in the remediation of soil and groundwater. In this review, the fundamental reactions and governing factors of persulfate relevant to ISCO are discussed. The latest experiences for ISCO with persulfate are presented, with a focus on the different activation methods, the amenable contaminants, and the reactions of persulfate with porous media, based primarily on a critical review of the peer-reviewed scientific literature and to a lesser extent on non-reviewed professional journals and conference proceedings. The last sections are devoted to identifying the best practices based on current experience and suggesting the direction of future research.

Abstract Inter‐organizational communication has been documented as a critical factor in promoting strategic collaboration among firms. In this paper, we seek to extend the stream of research in supply chain management by systematically investigating the antecedents and performance outcomes of inter‐organizational communication. Specifically, inter‐organizational communication is proposed as a relational competency that may yield strategic advantages for supply chain partners. Using structural equation modeling, we empirically test a number of hypothesized relationships based on a sample of over 200 United States firms. Our results provide strong support for the notion of inter‐organizational communication as a relational competency that enhances buyers’ and suppliers’ performance. Implications for future research and practice are offered.

The dispersion and deposition of particles from a point source in a turbulent channel flow are studied. An empirical mean velocity profile and the experimental data for turbulent intensities are used in the analysis. The instantaneous turbulence fluctuation is simulated as a continuous Gaussian random field, and an ensemble of particle trajectories is generated and statistically analyzed. A series of digital simulations for dispersion and deposition of aerosol particles of various sizes from point sources at different positions from the wall is performed. Effects of Brownian diffusion on particle dispersion are studied. The effects of variation in particle density and particle-surface interaction are also discussed.

In this critical Review we focus on the evolution of the hybrid ion capacitor (HIC) from its early embodiments to its modern form, focusing on the key outstanding scientific and technological questions that necessitate further in-depth study. It may be argued that HICs began as aqueous systems, based on a Faradaic oxide positive electrode (e.g., Co3O4, RuOx) and an activated carbon ion-adsorption negative electrode. In these early embodiments HICs were meant to compete directly with electrical double layer capacitors (EDLCs), rather than with the much higher energy secondary batteries. The HIC design then evolved to be based on a wide voltage (∼4.2 V) carbonate-based battery electrolyte, using an insertion titanium oxide compound anode (Li4Ti5O12, LixTi5O12) versus a Li ion adsorption porous carbon cathode. The modern Na and Li architectures contain a diverse range of nanostructured materials in both electrodes, including TiO2, Li7Ti5O12, Li4Ti5O12, Na6LiTi5O12, Na2Ti3O7, graphene, hard carbon, soft carbon, graphite, carbon nanosheets, pseudocapacitor T-Nb2O5, V2O5, MXene, conversion compounds MoS2, VN, MnO, and Fe2O3/Fe3O4, cathodes based on Na3V2(PO4)3, NaTi2(PO4)3, sodium super ionic conductor (NASICON), etc. The Ragone chart characteristics of HIC devices critically depend on their anode–cathode architectures. Combining electrodes with the flattest capacity versus voltage characteristics, and the largest total voltage window, yields superior energy. Unfortunately “flat voltage” materials undergo significant volume expansion/contraction during cycling and are frequently lifetime limited. Overall more research on HIC cathodes is needed; apart from high surface area carbon, very few positive electrodes demonstrate the necessary 10 000 or 100 000 plus cycle life. It remains to be determined whether its lithium ion capacitors (LICs) or sodium ion capacitors (NICs) are superior in terms of energy–power and cyclability. We discuss unresolved issues, including poorly understood fast-charge storage mechanisms, prelithiation and presodiation, solid electrolyte interface (SEI) formation, and high-rate metal plating.

Abstract Purchasing has increasingly assumed a pivotal strategic role in supply‐chain management. Yet, claims of the strategic role of purchasing have not been fully subjected to rigorous theoretical and empirical scrutiny. Extant research has remained largely anecdotal and theoretically under‐developed. In this paper, we examine the links among strategic purchasing, supply management, and firm performance. We argue that strategic purchasing can engender sustainable competitive advantage by enabling firms to: (a) foster close working relationships with a limited number of suppliers; (b) promote open communication among supply‐chain partners; and (c) develop long‐term strategic relationship orientation to achieve mutual gains. Using structural equation modeling, we empirically test a number of hypothesized relationships based on a sample of 221 United States manufacturing firms. Our results provide robust support for the links between strategic purchasing, supply management, customer responsiveness, and financial performance of the buying firm. Implications for future research and managerial practice in supply‐chain management are also offered.

&lt;p&gt;Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics published the first Plasma Roadmap in 2012 consisting of the individual perspectives of 16 leading experts in the various sub-fields of low temperature plasma science and technology. The 2017 Plasma Roadmap is the first update of a planned series of periodic updates of the Plasma Roadmap. The continuously growing interdisciplinary nature of the low temperature plasma field and its equally broad range of applications are making it increasingly difficult to identify major challenges that encompass all of the many sub-fields and applications. This intellectual diversity is ultimately a strength of the field. The current state of the art for the 19 sub-fields addressed in this roadmap demonstrates the enviable track record of the low temperature plasma field in the development of plasmas as an enabling technology for a vast range of technologies that underpin our modern society. At the same time, the many important scientific and technological challenges shared in this roadmap show that the path forward is not only scientifically rich but has the potential to make wide and far reaching contributions to many societal challenges.&lt;/p&gt;

The heart of the scientific enterprise is a rational effort to understand the causes behind the phenomena we observe. In large-scale complex dynamical systems such as the Earth system, real experiments are rarely feasible. However, a rapidly increasing amount of observational and simulated data opens up the use of novel data-driven causal methods beyond the commonly adopted correlation techniques. Here, we give an overview of causal inference frameworks and identify promising generic application cases common in Earth system sciences and beyond. We discuss challenges and initiate the benchmark platform causeme.net to close the gap between method users and developers.

This comprehensive Review focuses on the key challenges and recent progress regarding sodium-metal anodes employed in sodium-metal batteries (SMBs). The metal anode is the essential component of emerging energy storage systems such as sodium sulfur and sodium selenium, which are discussed as example full-cell applications. We begin with a description of the differences in the chemical and physical properties of Na metal versus the oft-studied Li metal, and a corresponding discussion regarding the number of ways in which Na does not follow Li-inherited paradigms in its electrochemical behavior. We detail the major challenges for Na-metal systems that at this time limit the feasibility of SMBs. The core Na anode problems are the following interrelated degradation mechanisms: An unstable solid electrolyte interphase with most organic electrolytes, “mossy” and “lath-like” metal dendrite growth for liquid systems, poor Coulombic efficiency, and gas evolution. Even solid-state Na batteries are not immune, with metal dendrites being reported. The solutions may be subdivided into the following interrelated taxonomy: Improved electrolytes and electrolyte additives tailored for Na-metal anodes, interfacial engineering between the metal and the liquid or solid electrolyte, electrode architectures that both reduce the current density during plating–stripping and serve as effective hosts that shield the Na metal from excessive reactions, and alloy design to tune the bulk properties of the metal per se. For instance, stable plating–stripping of Na is extremely difficult with conventional carbonate solvents but has been reported with ethers and glymes. Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) such as beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), sodium superionic conductor (NASICON), and sodium thiophosphate (75Na2S·25P2S5) present highly exciting opportunities for SMBs that avoid the dangers of flammable liquids. Even SSEs are not immune to dendrites, however, which grow through the defects in the bulk pellet, but may be controlled through interfacial energy modification. We conclude with a discussion of the key research areas that we feel are the most fruitful for further pursuit. In our opinion, greatly improved understanding and control of the SEI structure is the key to cycling stability. A holistic approach involving complementary post-mortem, in situ, and operando analyses to elucidate full battery cell level structure–performance relations is advocated.

Multiple studies have found that the primary determinant of new product failure is an absence of innovativeness—the extent to which a new product provides meaningfully unique benefits. Given the persistence of this finding and the growing use of cross-functional teams in new product development projects, the authors examine how innovativeness is affected by various characteristics of cross-functional teams and contextual influences on the team. On the basis of a study of 141 cross-functional product development teams, the authors find that innovativeness is positively related to the strength of superordinate identity in the team, encouragement to take risk, customers' influence, and active monitoring of the project by senior management. Beyond a moderate level, social cohesion among team members has a negative effect on innovativeness. The effect of superordinate identity on innovativeness is strengthened by encouragement to take risk and weakened by social cohesion. Functional diversity has no effect on innovativeness. The authors discuss managerial and research implications of the findings.

George Gaylord Simpson famously postulated that much of life's diversity originated as adaptive radiations-more or less simultaneous divergences of numerous lines from a single ancestral adaptive type. However, identifying adaptive radiations has proven difficult due to a lack of broad-scale comparative datasets. Here, we use phylogenetic comparative data on body size and shape in a diversity of animal clades to test a key model of adaptive radiation, in which initially rapid morphological evolution is followed by relative stasis. We compared the fit of this model to both single selective peak and random walk models. We found little support for the early-burst model of adaptive radiation, whereas both other models, particularly that of selective peaks, were commonly supported. In addition, we found that the net rate of morphological evolution varied inversely with clade age. The youngest clades appear to evolve most rapidly because long-term change typically does not attain the amount of divergence predicted from rates measured over short time scales. Across our entire analysis, the dominant pattern was one of constraints shaping evolution continually through time rather than rapid evolution followed by stasis. We suggest that the classical model of adaptive radiation, where morphological evolution is initially rapid and slows through time, may be rare in comparative data.