Department of Education

INTRODUCTION: We use a utility model to illustrate that, firstly, selecting an assessment method involves context-dependent compromises, and secondly, that assessment is not a measurement problem but an instructional design problem, comprising educational, implementation and resource aspects. In the model, assessment characteristics are differently weighted depending on the purpose and context of the assessment. EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS: Of the characteristics in the model, we focus on reliability, validity and educational impact and argue that they are not inherent qualities of any instrument. Reliability depends not on structuring or standardisation but on sampling. Key issues concerning validity are authenticity and integration of competencies. Assessment in medical education addresses complex competencies and thus requires quantitative and qualitative information from different sources as well as professional judgement. Adequate sampling across judges, instruments and contexts can ensure both validity and reliability. Despite recognition that assessment drives learning, this relationship has been little researched, possibly because of its strong context dependence. ASSESSMENT AS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: When assessment should stimulate learning and requires adequate sampling, in authentic contexts, of the performance of complex competencies that cannot be broken down into simple parts, we need to make a shift from individual methods to an integral programme, intertwined with the education programme. Therefore, we need an instructional design perspective. IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH: Programmatic instructional design hinges on a careful description and motivation of choices, whose effectiveness should be measured against the intended outcomes. We should not evaluate individual methods, but provide evidence of the utility of the assessment programme as a whole.

A new theory of the development of expertise in medicine is outlined. Contrary to existing views, this theory assumes that expertise is not so much a matter of superior reasoning skills or in-depth knowledge of pathophysiological states as it is based on cognitive structures that describe the features of prototypical or even actual patients. These cognitive structures, referred to as "illness scripts," contain relatively little knowledge about pathophysiological causes of symptoms and complaints but a wealth of clinically relevant information about disease, its consequences, and the context under which illness develops. By contrast, intermediate-level students without clinical experience typically use pathophysiological, causal models of disease when solving problems. The authors review evidence supporting the theory and discuss its implications for the understanding of five phenomena extensively documented in the clinical-reasoning literature: (1) content specificity in diagnostic performance; (2) typical differences in data-gathering techniques between medical students and physicians; (3) difficulties involved in setting standards; (4) a decline in performance on certain measures of clinical reasoning with increasing expertise; and (5) a paradoxical association between errors and longer response times in visual diagnosis.

CONTEXT: Problem-based learning (PBL) is widely used in higher education. There is evidence available that students and faculty are highly satisfied with PBL. Nevertheless, in educational practice problems are often encountered, such as tutors who are too directive, problems that are too well-structured, and dysfunctional tutorial groups. PURPOSE: The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that PBL has the potential to prepare students more effectively for future learning because it is based on four modern insights into learning: constructive, self-directed, collaborative and contextual. These four learning principles are described and it is explained how they apply to PBL. In addition, available research is reviewed and the current debate in research on PBL is described. DISCUSSION: It is argued that problems encountered in educational practice usually stem from poor implementation of PBL. In many cases the way in which PBL is implemented is not consistent with the current insights on learning. Furthermore, it is argued that research on PBL should contribute towards a better understanding of why and how the concepts of constructive, self-directed, collaborative and contextual learning work or do not work and under what circumstances. Examples of studies are given to illustrate this issue.

Practicing engineers are hired, retained, and rewarded for solving problems, so engineering students should learn how to solve workplace problems. Workplace engineering problems are substantively different from the kinds of problems that engineering students most often solve in the classroom; therefore, learning to solve classroom problems does not necessarily prepare engineering students to solve workplace problems. These qualitative studies of workplace engineering problems identify the attributes of workplace problems. Workplace problems are ill-structured and complex because they possess conflicting goals, multiple solution methods, non-engineering success standards, non-engineering constraints, unanticipated problems, distributed knowledge, collaborative activity systems, the importance of experience, and multiple forms of problem representation. Some implications for designing engineering curricula and experiences that better prepare students for solving workplace problems are considered.

In assessment a considerable shift in thinking has occurred from assessment of learning to assessment for learning. This has important implications for the conceptual framework from which to approach the issue of assessment, but also with respect to the research agenda. The main conceptual changes pertain to programmes of assessment. This has led to a broadened perspective on the types of construct assessment tries to capture, the way information from various sources is collected and collated, the role of human judgement and the variety of psychometric methods to determine the quality of the assessment. Research into the quality of assessment programmes, how assessment influences learning and teaching, new psychometric models and the role of human judgement is much needed.

We propose a model for programmatic assessment in action, which simultaneously optimises assessment for learning and assessment for decision making about learner progress. This model is based on a set of assessment principles that are interpreted from empirical research. It specifies cycles of training, assessment and learner support activities that are complemented by intermediate and final moments of evaluation on aggregated assessment data points. A key principle is that individual data points are maximised for learning and feedback value, whereas high-stake decisions are based on the aggregation of many data points. Expert judgement plays an important role in the programme. Fundamental is the notion of sampling and bias reduction to deal with the inevitable subjectivity of this type of judgement. Bias reduction is further sought in procedural assessment strategies derived from criteria for qualitative research. We discuss a number of challenges and opportunities around the proposed model. One of its prime virtues is that it enables assessment to move, beyond the dominant psychometric discourse with its focus on individual instruments, towards a systems approach to assessment design underpinned by empirically grounded theory.

With growing recognition that bullying is a complex phenomenon, influenced by multiple factors, research findings to date have been understood within a social-ecological framework. Consistent with this model, we review research on the known correlates and contributing factors in bullying/victimization within the individual, family, peer group, school and community. Recognizing the fluid and dynamic nature of involvement in bullying, we then expand on this model and consider research on the consequences of bullying involvement, as either victim or bully or both, and propose a social-ecological, diathesis-stress model for understanding the bullying dynamic and its impact. Specifically, we frame involvement in bullying as a stressful life event for both children who bully and those who are victimized, serving as a catalyst for a diathesis-stress connection between bullying, victimization, and psychosocial difficulties. Against this backdrop, we suggest that effective bullying prevention and intervention efforts must take into account the complexities of the human experience, addressing both individual characteristics and history of involvement in bullying, risk and protective factors, and the contexts in which bullying occurs, in order to promote healthier social relationships.

This article provides an introductory overview of findings from the past 40 years of research on bullying among school-aged children and youth. Research on definitional and assessment issues in studying bullying and victimization is reviewed, and data on prevalence rates, stability, and forms of bullying behavior are summarized, setting the stage for the 5 articles that comprise this American Psychologist special issue on bullying and victimization. These articles address bullying, victimization, psychological sequela and consequences, ethical, legal, and theoretical issues facing educators, researchers, and practitioners, and effective prevention and intervention efforts. The goal of this special issue is to provide psychologists with a comprehensive review that documents our current understanding of the complexity of bullying among school-aged youth and directions for future research and intervention efforts.

SUMMARY The question of whether problems of motor co‐ordination in early childhood recede with age has rarely been addressed. This paper reports the findings from a follow‐up study of 17 children, identified by their teachers as having poor motor co‐ordination at age six. Now age 16, these children and their matched controls completed a battery of assessments. The results suggest that the majority of children still have difficulties with motor co‐ordination, have poor self‐concept and are experiencing problems of various kinds in school. However, there are individual differences in the extent to which the children have learned to cope with their continuing difficulties over the years. RÉSUMÉ Maladresse chez l'enfant: disparait‐elle? Etude de suivi durant dix ans La question de savoir si les problèmes de coordination de l'enfance régressent avec l'ǎge a été rarement posée. L'article rapporte les données d'une étude longitudinale de 17 enfants, chez qui les enseignants avaient détecté une coordination motrice médiocre à l'ǎge de six ans. Ces sujets ont étéévalués par une batterie, avec des contrǒles appariés, a l'ǎge de 16 ans. Les résultats suggèrent que la majorité des sujets présentaient encore des difficultés en rapport avec une mauvaise coordination motrice, avaient une mauvaise image de leurs capacités et avaient eu des problèmes variés à l'école. Il y avait cependant des différences individuelles dans I'aptitude à intégrer les difficultés au cours des annees. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Ungeschicklichkeit bei Kindern: wie stehen die Chancen für eine Normalisierung? Eine Verlaufstudie über 10 Jahre Es ist selten die Frage gestellt worden, ob Probleme der motorischen Koordination im frühen Kindesalter im Laufe der Jahre verschwinden. In dieser Arbeit werden die Ergebnisse einer Verlaufsstudie bei 17 Kindern dargestellt, die im Alter von sechs Jahren von ihren Lehrern eine schlechte Beurteilung ihrer motorischen Koordination bekommen hatten. Jetzt, im Alter von 16 Jahren, wurden diese Kinder, sowie ihre Kontrollen, einer Reihe von Untersuchungen unterzogen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, da8 die Mehrzahl der Kinder noch immer Schwierigkeiten bei der motorischen Koordination, sowie ein mangelhaftes Selbstwertgefühl und verschiedene Probleme in der Schule hat. Es gibt jeoch individuelle Unterschiede, wie die Kinder gelernt haben, ihre fortbestehenden Schwierigkeiten im Verlaufe der Jahre zu meistern. RESUMEN Torpeza en niños:? Ilegan con la edad a libererse de ella? Estudio a lo largo de diez años Sólo muy raramente se ha planteado la pregunta de si los problemas de coordinación Ilegan a desaparecer con la edad. Este trabajo expone los hallazgos obtenidos en un estudio continuado de 17 niños, identificados por sus maestros como teniendo una coordinacion pobre a la edad de seis años. Ahora, con 16 años estos niños y un grupo control sa ha completado una bateria de exámenes. Los resultados sugieren que la mayoria de niños tienen todavia dificultades en la coordinacion motora. Tienen un autoconcepto pobre y sufren problemas de distinto tipo en la escuela. Sin embargo hay diferencias individuales concerniendo a lo aue el niño ha aprendido para adaptarse a sus continuas dificultades a lo largo de los años.

This article takes a critical look at three pervasive urban legends in education about the nature of learners, learning, and teaching and looks at what educational and psychological research has to say about them. The three legends can be seen as variations on one central theme, namely, that it is the learner who knows best and that she or he should be the controlling force in her or his learning. The first legend is one of learners as digital natives who form a generation of students knowing by nature how to learn from new media, and for whom “old” media and methods used in teaching/learning no longer work. The second legend is the widespread belief that learners have specific learning styles and that education should be individualized to the extent that the pedagogy of teaching/learning is matched to the preferred style of the learner. The final legend is that learners ought to be seen as self-educators who should be given maximum control over what they are learning and their learning trajectory. It concludes with a possible reason why these legends have taken hold, are so pervasive, and are so difficult to eradicate.

This Guide provides an overview of educational theory relevant to learning from experience. It considers experience gained in clinical workplaces from early medical student days through qualification to continuing professional development. Three key assumptions underpin the Guide: learning is 'situated'; it can be viewed either as an individual or a collective process; and the learning relevant to this Guide is triggered by authentic practice-based experiences. We first provide an overview of the guiding principles of experiential learning and significant historical contributions to its development as a theoretical perspective. We then discuss socio-cultural perspectives on experiential learning, highlighting their key tenets and drawing together common threads between theories. The second part of the Guide provides examples of learning from experience in practice to show how theoretical stances apply to clinical workplaces. Early experience, student clerkships and residency training are discussed in turn. We end with a summary of the current state of understanding.

From Pong to virtual reality, Understanding Video Games, 4th Edition, takes video game studies into the next decade of the twenty-first century, highlighting changes in the area, including mobile, social, and casual gaming.<br/><br/>In this new edition of the pioneering text, students learn to assess the major theories used to analyze games, such as ludology and narratology, and gain familiarity with the commercial and organizational aspects of the game industry. Drawing from historical and contemporary examples, the student-friendly text also explores the aesthetics of games, evaluates the cultural position of video games, and considers the potential effects of both violent and "serious" games.<br/><br/>Extensively illustrated and featuring discussion questions, a glossary of key terms, and a detailed video game history timeline, this new edition is an indispensable resource for students, scholars, and teachers interested in examining the ways video games continue to reshape entertainment and society.

The present study was a comprehensive, quantitative synthesis of the literature examining the effects of physical activity on children's mental health outcomes. The final analysis included 73 published and unpublished studies, totaling 246 effect sizes. Various study and participant characteristics were coded to assess moderator effects, including type of physical activity, mental health outcome, gender, cognitive ability, mental status, and implementer of the physical activity, etc. Results demonstrated varying effects depending on the methodology of the examined study [i.e., correlational vs. randomized controlled trial (RCT)/non-RCT] and characteristics of the participants, although overall effects of physical activity on children's mental health were small but significant, indicating that on average physical activity led to improved mental health outcomes for all children.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: During aging, musical activities can help maintain physical and mental health and cognitive abilities, but their rehabilitative use has not been systematically explored in persons with dementia (PWDs). Our aim was to determine the efficacy of a novel music intervention based on coaching the caregivers of PWDs to use either singing or music listening regularly as a part of everyday care. DESIGN AND METHODS: Eighty-nine PWD-caregiver dyads were randomized to a 10-week singing coaching group (n = 30), a 10-week music listening coaching group (n = 29), or a usual care control group (n = 30). The coaching sessions consisted primarily of singing/listening familiar songs coupled occasionally with vocal exercises and rhythmic movements (singing group) and reminiscence and discussions (music listening group). In addition, the intervention included regular musical exercises at home. All PWDs underwent an extensive neuropsychological assessment, which included cognitive tests, as well as mood and quality of life (QOL) scales, before and after the intervention period and 6 months later. In addition, the psychological well-being of family members was repeatedly assessed with questionnaires. RESULTS: Compared with usual care, both singing and music listening improved mood, orientation, and remote episodic memory and to a lesser extent, also attention and executive function and general cognition. Singing also enhanced short-term and working memory and caregiver well-being, whereas music listening had a positive effect on QOL. IMPLICATIONS: Regular musical leisure activities can have long-term cognitive, emotional, and social benefits in mild/moderate dementia and could therefore be utilized in dementia care and rehabilitation.

As more Americans enter college than ever before, their pathways through the broadly differentiated higher education system are changing. Movement in, out, and among institutions now characterizes students' attendance patterns—half of all undergraduates who begin at a four-year institution go on to attend at least one other college, and over one-third take some time off from college after their initial enrollment. This study investigated whether there is social-class variation in these patterns, with advantaged and disadvantaged students responding to new postsecondary choices by engaging in different pathways. National longitudinal data from postsecondary transcripts were used to follow students across schools and to examine the importance of family background and high school preparation in predicting forms of college attendance. The results demonstrate that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely than are economically advantaged students (net of prior academic preparation) to follow pathways that are characterized by interrupted movement. Such pathways appear to be less effective routes to the timely completion of degrees. Thus, difference in how students attend college represent an additional layer of stratification in higher education.

More than two hundred papers have reported genome-wide data from ancient humans. While the raw data for the vast majority are fully publicly available testifying to the commitment of the paleogenomics community to open data, formats for both raw data and meta-data differ. There is thus a need for uniform curation and a centralized, version-controlled compendium that researchers can download, analyze, and reference. Since 2019, we have been maintaining the Allen Ancient DNA Resource (AADR), which aims to provide an up-to-date, curated version of the world's published ancient human DNA data, represented at more than a million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at which almost all ancient individuals have been assayed. The AADR has gone through six public releases at the time of writing and review of this manuscript, and crossed the threshold of >10,000 individuals with published genome-wide ancient DNA data at the end of 2022. This note is intended as a citable descriptor of the AADR.

OBJECTIVES: The alleged medical education continuum is interrupted by a number of major transitions. After starting medical school, the first transition students encounter is that from non-clinical to clinical training. The second transition is that of graduated student to junior doctor or specialist trainee, and the third concerns the specialist trainee's transition to medical specialist. As a first step towards a better understanding of the effects of transitions, this paper provides a critical overview of how these transitions have been conceptualised in the medical education domain. The findings are complemented with perspectives from the fields of transitional psychology and organisational socialisation. The transition into medical school is not reviewed. METHODS: Using the term 'transition', six leading medical education journals were searched for relevant articles. A snowballing technique on the reference lists of the 44 relevant articles yielded 29 additional publications. Studies were reviewed and categorised as representing objectifying, clarifying, or descriptive and/or justifying research. RESULTS: When students enter clinical training, they need to relearn what they thought they knew and they must learn new things in a more self-directed way. As junior doctors or specialist trainees, their main challenges involve handling the many responsibilities that accompany the delivery of patient care while simultaneously learning from the process of providing that care. As medical specialists, new non-medical tasks and decisions on how to delegate responsibilities become issues. CONCLUSIONS: Research on transitions has objectified the challenges students and doctors face. Clarifying studies often lack conceptual frameworks that could help us to gain deeper insight into the observed phenomena. Psychology offers valuable theoretical perspectives that are applicable to medical education transitions. To transform a transition from a threat to a learning opportunity, medical education should assist students and doctors in developing the coping skills they need to effectively deal with the challenges presented by new environments.

Abstract. Socially shared regulation of learning (SSRL) has been recognized as a new and growing field in the framework of self-regulated learning theory in the past decade. In the present review, we examine the empirical evidence to support such a phenomenon. A total of 17 articles addressing SSRL were identified, 13 of which presented empirical evidence. Through a narrative review it could be concluded that there is enough data to maintain the existence of SSRL in comparison to other social regulation (e.g., co-regulation). It was found that most of the SSRL research has focused on characterizing phenomena through the use of mixed methods through qualitative data, mostly video-recorded observation data. Also, SSRL seems to contribute to students’ performance. Finally, the article discusses the need for the field to move forward, exploring the best conditions to promote SSRL, clarifying whether SSRL is always the optimal form of collaboration, and identifying more aspects of groups’ characteristics.

CONTEXT: The move towards competence-based medical education has created a need for instruments that support and assess competence development. Portfolios seem suitable but mixed reports of their success are emerging. METHODS: To examine the effectiveness of portfolios, we searched PubMed and EMBASE using the keyword 'portfol*', PsychInfo and ERIC using the keywords 'portfol*' and 'medical education' and references of retrieved papers for empirical studies on portfolios in all phases of medical education. Thirty of 1939 retrieved papers met the inclusion criteria and were analysed. Data were collated against the research question, number of subjects, design, setting, findings and limitations, purpose and content, mentoring and assessment. We analysed impact using a modified version of Kirkpatrick's hierarchy. RESULTS: Because differences across studies precluded statistical meta-analysis, the data were analysed by context, goals and procedure. Positive effects were strongest in undergraduate education. Important factors for success were: clearly communicated goals and procedures; integration with curriculum and assessment; flexible structure; support through mentoring, and measures to heighten feasibility and reduce required time. Moderately good inter-rater reliability was reported and global criteria and discussions among raters were beneficial. Formative and summative assessment could be combined. Without assessment, portfolios were vulnerable to competition from other summative assessment instruments. CONCLUSIONS: For portfolios to be effective in supporting and assessing competence development, robust integration into the curriculum and tutor support are essential. Further studies should focus on the effectiveness and user-friendliness of portfolios, the merits of holistic assessment procedures, and the competences of an effective portfolio mentor.

Debate continues regarding the nature and desirability of graduate attributes, driven partly by stakeholder expectations that universities will prepare employees for the knowledge economy and partly by higher education academics and learning specialists. While universities appear to have accepted their new vocational role, there is considerable confusion over how these things – graduate skills, attributes or capabilities – should be defined and implemented. Conceptual confusion combined with a range of external pressures and internal management issues have the potential to derail this important project. To date, stakeholders such as government and business, as well as universities have seriously underestimated the kind of cultural, institutional and policy changes required to implement the graduate skills agenda. This paper outlines the issues that will need to be addressed by the higher education sector if universities are to play a proactive rather than reactive role in shaping this agenda.