Illinois Wesleyan University

Corporations sponsoring causes may hope to create the appearance of "good citizenship." Using attribution theory, the authors develop and test a cognitive explanation of sponsorship effects. Results of the experiment suggest that a good fit between a company and the cause it sponsors generates consumer attributions of altruistic sponsor motives and enhances sponsor credibility and attitude toward the sponsor. Mediation analysis results indicate that congruence effects on sponsor attitudes were mediated by sponsor credibility.

This paper presents a computational technique for optimal control problems including state and control inequality constraints. The technique is based on spectral collocation methods used in the solution of differential equations. The system dynamics are collocated at Legendre-Gauss-Lobatto points. The derivative x/spl dot/(t) of the state x(t) is approximated by the analytic derivative of the corresponding interpolating polynomial. State and control inequality constraints are collocated at Legendre-Gauss-Lobatto nodes. The integral involved in the definition of the performance index is discretized based on the Gauss-Lobatto quadrature rule. The optimal control problem is thereby converted into a mathematical programming program. Thus existing, well-developed optimization algorithms may be used to solve the transformed problem. The method is easy to implement, capable of handling various types of constraints, and yields very accurate results. Illustrative examples are included to demonstrate the capability of the proposed method, and a comparison is made with existing methods in the literature.>

Social initiative and behavioral control represent two major dimensions of children's social competence. Cultural norms and values with respect to these dimensions may affect the exhibition, meaning, and development of specific social behaviors such as sociability, shyness-inhibition, cooperation-compliance, and aggression-defiance, as well as the quality and function of social relationships. The culturally guided social interaction processes including evaluations and responses likely serve as an important mediator of cultural influence on children's social behaviors, relationships, and developmental patterns. In this article, we review research on children's social functioning and peer relationships in different cultures from an integrative contextual-developmental perspective. We also review research on the implications of the macro-level social and cultural changes that are happening in many societies for socialization and development of social competence.

Children show increasing control of emotions and behavior during their early years. Our studies suggest a shift in control from the brain's orienting network in infancy to the executive network by the age of 3-4 years. Our longitudinal study indicates that orienting influences both positive and negative affect, as measured by parent report in infancy. At 3-4 years of age, the dominant control of affect rests in a frontal brain network that involves the anterior cingulate gyrus. Connectivity of brain structures also changes from infancy to toddlerhood. Early connectivity of parietal and frontal areas is important in orienting; later connectivity involves midfrontal and anterior cingulate areas related to executive attention and self-regulation.

Reflexive fighting was elicited between paired rats as a reflex reaction to electric shock prior to any specific conditioning. Such fighting was fairly stereotyped and easily differentiated from the rats' usual behavior. The strength of this reflex was not attributable to any apparent operant reinforcement. Elicitation of fighting was a direct function of the enclosed floor area and a nonmonotonic function of the shock intensity. Failure to scramble the polarity of the electrified grid produced inconsistent fighting. Under optimal conditions fighting was consistently elicited by shock regardless of the rat's sex, strain, previous familiarity with each other, or the number present during shock. Repeated shock presentations did not produce an appreciable decrease in fighting until signs of physical debility appeared. Although shock did not cause a rat to attack inanimate objects, it did produce attack movements toward other small animals. Failure of guinea pigs to defend themselves revealed that the elicitation of fighting from the rat does not require reciprocal attack. Paired hamsters showed fighting reactions similar to those of the rats, whereas guinea pigs failed to fight. Electrode shock and a heated floor elicited fighting between the rats, but intense noise and a cooled floor did not.

Loneliness predicts morbidity and mortality from broad-based causes, but the reasons for this effect remain unclear. Few differences in traditional health behaviors (e.g., smoking, exercise, nutrition) have been found to differentiate lonely and nonlonely individuals. We present evidence that a prototypic restorative behavior--sleep--does make such a differentiation, not through differences in time in bed or in sleep duration, but through differences in efficacy: In the study we report here, lonely individuals evinced poorer sleep efficiency and more time awake after sleep onset than nonlonely individuals. These results, which were observed in controlled laboratory conditions and were found to generalize to the home, suggest that lonely individuals may be less resilient than nonlonely individuals in part because they sleep more poorly. These results also raise the possibility that social factors such as loneliness not only may influence the selection of health behaviors but also may modulate the salubrity of restorative behaviors.

Holographic techniques significantly extend the capabilities of laser tweezing, making possible extended trapping patterns for manipulating large numbers of particles and volumes of soft matter. We describe practical methods for creating arbitrary configurations of optical tweezers using computer-generated diffractive optical elements. While the discussion focuses on ways to create planar arrays of identical tweezers, the approach can be generalized to three-dimensional arrangements of heterogeneous tweezers and extended trapping patterns.

Given the powerful implications of relationship quality for health and well-being, a central mission of relationship science is explaining why some romantic relationships thrive more than others. This large-scale project used machine learning (i.e., Random Forests) to 1) quantify the extent to which relationship quality is predictable and 2) identify which constructs reliably predict relationship quality. Across 43 dyadic longitudinal datasets from 29 laboratories, the top relationship-specific predictors of relationship quality were perceived-partner commitment, appreciation, sexual satisfaction, perceived-partner satisfaction, and conflict. The top individual-difference predictors were life satisfaction, negative affect, depression, attachment avoidance, and attachment anxiety. Overall, relationship-specific variables predicted up to 45% of variance at baseline, and up to 18% of variance at the end of each study. Individual differences also performed well (21% and 12%, respectively). Actor-reported variables (i.e., own relationship-specific and individual-difference variables) predicted two to four times more variance than partner-reported variables (i.e., the partner's ratings on those variables). Importantly, individual differences and partner reports had no predictive effects beyond actor-reported relationship-specific variables alone. These findings imply that the sum of all individual differences and partner experiences exert their influence on relationship quality via a person's own relationship-specific experiences, and effects due to moderation by individual differences and moderation by partner-reports may be quite small. Finally, relationship-quality change (i.e., increases or decreases in relationship quality over the course of a study) was largely unpredictable from any combination of self-report variables. This collective effort should guide future models of relationships.

In The Price for Their Pound of Flesh, Daina Ramey Berry has produced a rich compendium of hidden transcripts documenting how American slaves viewed their lives. The book “is organized around the life cycle of an enslaved person's body” and examines each stage of a slave's life from “preconception” (i.e., the unborn children of expectant mothers) to “postmortem” (i.e., the cadaver trade) (p. 3). Her method is more qualitative than quantitative. Berry has worked to reconstruct not just the monetary value of black bodies as capitalists saw them but also the lived experiences and self-actualized personal value posited by the slaves themselves, their internal spiritual or “soul value” (p. 6). Indeed, while she pitches the book as a contribution to “a new economic history of American slavery,” Berry is more concerned with the slaves' inner lives (p. 5). Her “goal is to highlight the voices of the enslaved,” which she pursues wherever evidence can be found, however fragmentary (p. 9).

Brain networks underlying attention are present even during infancy and are critical for the developing ability of children to control their emotions and thoughts. For adults, individual differences in the efficiency of attentional networks have been related to neuromodulators and to genetic variations. We have examined the development of attentional networks and child temperament in a longitudinal study from infancy (7 months) to middle childhood (7 years). Early temperamental differences among infants, including smiling and laughter and vocal reactivity, are related to self-regulation abilities at 7 years. However, genetic variations related to adult executive attention, while present in childhood, are poor predictors of later control, in part because individual genetic variationmay have many small effects and in part because their influence occurs in interaction with caregiver behavior and other environmental influences. While brain areas involved in attention are present during infancy, their connectivity changes and leads to improvement in control of behavior. It is also possible to influence control mechanisms through training later in life. The relation between maturation and learning may allow advances in our understanding of human brain development.

This review article summarizes the applications of bismuth(III) compounds in organic synthesis since 2002. Although there are an increasing number of reports on applications of bismuth(III) salts in polymerization reactions, and their importance is acknowledged, they are not included in this review. This review is largely organized by the reaction type although some reactions can clearly be placed in multiple sections. While every effort has been made to include all relevant reports in this field, any omission is inadvertent and we apologize in advance for the same (358 references).

Is creativity domain-specific? We describe the value of latent class analysis for appraising domain generality, and we report two studies that explore the latent class structure of creative accomplishments (using Carson, Peterson, and Higgins’s Creative Achievement Questionnaire; n = 749) and creative self-descriptions (using Kaufman and Baer’s Creativity Domain Questionnaire; n = 3,534). For creative achievements, clear latent classes were found: the majority of people belonged to an ?uncreative? class, and smaller classes were found for visual arts and performing arts. For creative self-descriptions, however, latent classes were not found: people’s views of themselves as ?creative people? varied quantitatively but not qualitatively. Implications for the assessment and analysis of creativity are considered.

Well-established in the field of bioelectronic medicine, Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) offers an implantable, non-pharmacologic treatment for patients with intractable chronic pain conditions. Chronic pain is a widely heterogenous syndrome with regard to both pathophysiology and the resultant phenotype. Despite advances in our understanding of SCS-mediated antinociception, there still exists limited evidence clarifying the pathways recruited when patterned electric pulses are applied to the epidural space. The rapid clinical implementation of novel SCS methods including burst, high frequency and dorsal root ganglion SCS has provided the clinician with multiple options to treat refractory chronic pain. While compelling evidence for safety and efficacy exists in support of these novel paradigms, our understanding of their mechanisms of action (MOA) dramatically lags behind clinical data. In this review, we reconstruct the available basic science and clinical literature that offers support for mechanisms of both paresthesia spinal cord stimulation (P-SCS) and paresthesia-free spinal cord stimulation (PF-SCS). While P-SCS has been heavily examined since its inception, PF-SCS paradigms have recently been clinically approved with the support of limited preclinical research. Thus, wide knowledge gaps exist between their clinical efficacy and MOA. To close this gap, many rich investigative avenues for both P-SCS and PF-SCS are underway, which will further open the door for paradigm optimization, adjunctive therapies and new indications for SCS. As our understanding of these mechanisms evolves, clinicians will be empowered with the possibility of improving patient care using SCS to selectively target specific pathophysiological processes in chronic pain.

In variable rate application technology (VRT), crop production input rate is changed within fields in response to spatially variable factors that affect the optimum application rate. It is being considered by farmers and the crop input industry because factors that affect crop yield are not always uniform within fields and, therefore, do not allow optimum efficiency or profitability from uniform application. If VRT is widely adopted, then a change must occur in the predominant management practice of applying inputs as uniformly as possible and changing rates only between fields—what has historically occurred on the majority of production fields. Properly implemented, VRT is a correct concept and can work. It has potential to improve input efficiency, field profitability, and environmental stewardship. Field research indicates, however, that positive economic return to VRT application does not always occur. There are complicating factors that limit its effectiveness. Of most importance are: (i) the cost of implementation (sampling, mapping, equipment, personnel); (ii) lack of expected increase in crop yield (little actual variation, incorrect assessment of variation or low accuracy mapping, and low precision crop‐input response function or incorrect interpretation of expected crop response); and (iii) lack of input savings. These factors focus on VRT fertilization, but they apply to other inputs as well. Despite many possible and intuitive benefits, lack of consistent economic improvement causes concern about adoption of VRT practices. At today's crop value and cost of technology, VRT may not always be economically feasible. Profitability of fields or environmental stewardship must be improved by VRT, or it should not be used by farmers. VRT must be better than uniform application and ideally it should be the best application possible within a field. As is true for many management practices, no definitive answer exists as to whether VRT should be used in every field or is the best crop input management practice for all farmers. It probably depends— upon the field, the crop, the geographic area, the pest, the nutrient, the soil, the variability, and the managerial ability. To effectively implement VRT, within‐field variation must be accurately identified and reliably interpreted. This is the basis of VRT and is a prerequisite for it's success. Additional research should fully develop these capabilities. Improved and reliable input‐crop models and cost effective mapping procedures are needed. Once models and practices for VRT are fully developed, then predictive economic simulation will help target fields for successful VRT use. Research Question In variable rate application technology (VRT), crop production input rate is changed within a field in response to variable factors that affect the optimum rate of application. Individuals involved in many aspects of production agriculture are asking if they should adopt VRT. If it is widely implemented, then a major change must occur in how production agriculture views and manages crop production inputs—a change from the predominant procedure of applying inputs as uniformly as possible and adjusting rates only between fields. Background Why should VRT be considered? Uniform application of crop production inputs does not allow optimum efficiency or profitability because factors that affect crop production are not always uniform within fields. Properly implemented, VRT is a correct concept. It has the potential to improve, or ideally maximize efficiency of inputs and profitability of individual fields by targeting application where needed and at optimum rates. Variable rate application is not a new concept. The University of Illinois published a circular in 1929 outlining practices to intensively soil sample fields for the purpose of mapping soil pH variation and determining treatable areas for variable limestone application. This was an important aspect of crop production at that time. Forage legumes, such as clover (which is very sensitive to low pH), were important in crop rotations. Also, liming was an expensive and labor intensive practice. It was important to apply limestone for pH correction and to efficiently use the limestone that was applied. Perhaps the complete process was not quite as high‐tech as today's methods, but it was deemed important enough to develop the management it required. Is the same situation present today? Technology certainly has the potential to make many things possible and easy to accomplish. But, are the costs of products, the costs associated with product supply and application, and the costs of improper application associated with uniform application worthy of VRT and its associated costs and management? Can VRT substantially improve the correctness of applications. Can VRT improve environmental stewardship? Or is the equipment and computational ability more detailed and precise than the world in which we conduct the business of production agriculture? Has the technology outpaced our ability to understand and accurately map soil properties that affect crop yield? Applied Questions Is there improvement from VRT fertilizer application? Yes and no. Field research to date is not exhaustive. It shows VRT can improve input efficiency and field profitability, but it indicates that positive economic return to VRT implementation does not always occur. Several possible shortcomings affect potential benefits. These include: (i) the crop is not responsive to the input; (ii) the crop‐input response function used is not specific or appropriate; (iii) within‐field variation is in a range that does not affect yield; (iv) variation is small or does not exist, and therefore VRT cannot improve upon results from a uniform rate; (v) variation is not correctly (or at least adequately) identified, measured, or delineated (mapped); (vi) measurement and recommendation practices available today are neither adequately accurate or reliable for VRT; (vii) identified variation is not correctly managed or there is incorrect interpretation of expected crop response; and (viii) costs of implementing VRT (sampling, mapping, equipment, and personnel) outweigh the value of crop yield increase or input saving. The bottom line, will VRT pay? Despite many possible and intuitive benefits, lack of consistent economic improvement causes concern about adoption of VRT practices. At today's crop value and cost of technology, VRT may not always be economical. It must improve profitability of fields and provide environmental benefits, or it should not be used by farmers. Will VRT be adopted and implemented by production agriculture? As is the case for many practices, no definitive answer exists as to whether VRT should be used in every field or is the best crop input management for all farmers. The answer is—it depends. It depends on the expected crop response to lime, nutrients, pesticides, and the value of the crop. It depends on the characteristics of the variability that affect crop production and the capability to measure, map, and manage it. It depends on the capability of production agriculture to understand and manage the new technology. It depends on the importance of such potential benefits as environmental improvement. There is no guarantee that VRT will provide economic benefit, the same as for other management or production practices. As always, assessment of each field is needed to help ensure use of profitable practices and greatest chance of economic benefit. Variable rate technology is one of many management tools with the potential to optimize crop yield and profitability. If no other benefit occurs, at least the VRT process demands critical field evaluation and management. Recommendation To effectively implement VRT one must have the capability to accurately identify and reliably interpret within‐field variation. This is the basis of VRT and is a prerequisite for its success. Additional research is needed to fully develop these capabilities. There must be improved and reliable input‐crop response models and cost effective practices to accurately assess variation. Also, it must make economic sense to implement VRT (which can include environmental benefits). Once the models and practices for VRT are in place, then predictive economic simulation could target individual fields or geographical regions for successful VRT use.

This study examined the association between racial identity profiles, discrimination, and mental health outcomes. African American college students (N = 194) completed measures of racial discrimination, racial identity, college hassles, and depressive symptoms. Four meaningful profiles emerged through a cluster analysis of seven dimensions of racial identity assessed using the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI). Results suggested racial identity moderates the relation between discrimination and depressive symptoms. Students whose racial identity profile involves the goal of blending with the mainstream and focusing on shared human qualities rather than race as a core ideological concept had a significantly stronger association between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. The results hold implications for investigating the experience of racial discrimination and conceptualization of racial identity.

In adults, most cognitive and emotional self-regulation is carried out by a network of brain regions, including the anterior cingulate, insula, and areas of the basal ganglia, related to executive attention. We propose that during infancy, control systems depend primarily upon a brain network involved in orienting to sensory events that includes areas of the parietal lobe and frontal eye fields. Studies of human adults and alert monkeys have shown that the brain network involved in orienting to sensory events is moderated primarily by the nicotinic cholinergic system arising in the nucleus basalis. The executive attention network is primarily moderated by dopaminergic input from the ventral tegmental area. A change from cholinergic to dopaminergic modulation would be a consequence of this switch of control networks and may be important in understanding early development. We trace the attentional, emotional, and behavioral changes in early development related to this developmental change in regulative networks and their modulators.

The minimum number of trials necessary to accurately characterize the error-related negativity (ERN) and the error positivity (Pe) across the life span was investigated using samples of preadolescent children, college-age young adults, and older adults. Event-related potentials and task performance were subsequently measured during a modified flanker task. Response-locked averages were created using sequentially increasing errors of commission in blocks of two. Findings indicated that across all age cohorts ERN and Pe were not significantly different relative to the within-participants grand average after six trials. Further, results indicated that the ERN and Pe exhibited excellent internal reliability in preadolescent children and young adults after six trials, but older adults required eight trials to reach similar reliability. These data indicate that the ERN and Pe may be accurately quantified with as few as six to eight commission error trials across the life span.

Journal Article The dimensions of realization: a critique of the Standard view Get access Carl Gillett Carl Gillett Illinois Wesleyan UniversityBloomington, IL 61701, USAcgillett@titan.iwu.edu Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Analysis, Volume 62, Issue 4, October 2002, Pages 316–323, https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/62.4.316 Published: 01 October 2002

During this decade, there have been major advancements in the understanding of genetic loci involved in synthesis of the family of Mg-tetrapyrroles known as chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls. Molecular genetic analysis of Mg-tetrapyrrole biosynthesis was initiated by the performance of detailed sequence and mutational analysis of the photosynthesis gene cluster from Rhodobacter capsulatus. These studies provided the first detailed understanding of genes involved in bacteriochlorophyll a biosynthesis. In the short time since these studies were initiated, most of the chlorophyll biosynthesis genes have been identified by virtue of their ability to complement bacteriochlorophyll a biosynthesis mutants as well as by sequence homology comparisons. This review is centered on a discussion of our current understanding of bacterial, algal, and plant genes that code for enzymes in the Mg-branch of the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway that are responsible for synthesis of chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls.

The authors examined experimentally whether exposure to social discourse about concepts related to mental states could promote changes in children's theory of mind understanding. In 2 studies, 3- to 4-year-old children were assigned to either a training or a no training control condition. All children were administered several theory of mind measures at pretest and 2 posttests. Training was not effective in improving performance in Study 1 (n = 37); but in Study 2 (n = 54), modifications of the training procedure led to significant improvements on measures of false belief and deception from pretest to 1st posttest. The findings support the influence of social discourse on children's theory of mind development.