Institut für Zeitgeschichte München–Berlin

Scientific objectivity is neither monolithic nor immutable: our current usage is compounded of several meanings - metaphysical, methodological and moral - and each meaning has a distinct history, as well as a history of fusion within what now counts as a single concept of `objectivity'. The rise of aperspectival history in nineteenth-century science is one strand of this plaited history of objectivity, as embodied in scientific ideals and practices. It is conceptually and historically distinct from the ontological aspect of objectivity that pursues the ultimate structure of reality, and from the mechanical aspect of objectivity that forbids interpretation in reporting and picturing scientific results. Whereas ontological objectivity is about the fit between theory and the world, and mechanical objectivity is about suppressing the universal human propensity to judge and aestheticize, aperspectival objectivity is about eliminating individual (or occasionally group) idiosyncracies. It emerged first in the moral and aesthetic philosophy of the late eighteenth century and spread to the natural sciences only in the mid-nineteenth century, as a result of a reorganization of scientific life that multiplied professional contacts at every level, from the international commission to the well-staffed laboratory.

Abstract Recent work on petrofabrics, particularly work written in German, is reviewed in the light of the author's own experience. Topics discussed include quantitative comparison of fabric diagrams, the thermodynamics of crystal growth under stress, interpretation of grain boundaries, comparison of fabrics of metal and silicate crystal aggregates, recrystallisation fabrics, quantitative evaluation of rock deformation using parameters of ooliths, fossils and folds, and structural sequence in orogenic zones.

Leukotriene (LT)B4 promotes leukocyte chemotaxis and adhesion to the endothelium of postcapillary venules. The cysteinyl leukotrienes, LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4, elicit macromolecular leakage from this vessel segment. Both leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium and macromolecular leakage from postcapillary venules hallmark the microcirculatory failure after ischemia-reperfusion, suggesting a role of leukotrienes as mediators of ischemia-reperfusion injury. Using the dorsal skinfold chamber model for intravital fluorescence microscopy of the microcirculation in striated muscle in awake hamsters and sequential RP-HPLC and RIA for leukotrienes, we demonstrate in this study that (a) the leukotrienes (LT)B4 and LTD4 elicit leukocyte/endothelium interaction and macromolecular leakage from postcapillary venules, respectively, that (b) leukotrienes accumulate in the tissue after ischemia and reperfusion, and that (c) selective inhibition of leukotriene biosynthesis (by MK-886) prevents both postischemic leukotriene accumulation and the microcirculatory changes after ischemia-reperfusion, while blocking of LTD4/E4 receptors (by MK-571) inhibits postischemic macromolecular leakage. These results demonstrate a key role of leukotrienes in ischemia-reperfusion injury in striated muscle in vivo.

Our paper investigates the impact of the global and the Euro crisis on citizens’ attitudes towards the European Union (EU). We measure the impact of the Euro crisis on two different levels: First, the crisis itself at the contextual level and second, and more importantly, at the individual level, referring to citizens’ perceptions of the crisis. Our main assumption is that during the crisis, economic explanations find their way back into the study of EU support. We test our hypotheses with 27 EU member states using different Eurobarometer surveys and apply descriptive statistics as well as multi-level regression analyses. Three conclusions emerge from the analysis: First, the impact of the Euro crisis is stronger than in the case of the global financial crisis. Second, support for the EU depends on both the contextual and the individual level although effects of the latter are more prevalent. Third, the effect of the individual perception of the crisis on EU support is stronger in Euro countries as well as in economically powerful countries. Altogether and contrary to major assumptions following post-functional arguments, our findings show that in times of the crisis economic factors again play a major role in the explanation of support for the EU. This leads to a rather critical evaluation for the future of the European integration process.

Based on a wide range of Latin and vernacular sources, this essay reexamines Thomas Laqueur's and Londa Schiebinger's influential claim that the idea of incommensurable anatomical difference between the sexes was "invented" in the eighteenth century, reflecting, in particular, a need to resort to nature in order to justify female subordination against new ideals of equality and universal rights. It provides ample evidence that already around 1600 many leading physicians, rather than proclaiming a "one-sex model" of female inferiority, insisted on the unique and purposeful features of the female skeleton and the female genital organs and illustrated them visually. The author shares Laqueur's and Schiebinger's assumption that the shift toward incommensurable anatomical difference helped legitimize woman's subordinate position as housewife and mother as naturally given. But around 1600 Enlightenment ideals as yet played no role. Instead, this shift reflected, in particular, contemporary physicians' growing appreciation of personal discovery and innovation, the rise of a specialist gynecology, and new views on marriage and motherhood in the upper classes among whom the physicians lived and whose support they sought.

Antike jüdische Briefe und der Anfang der christlichen Epistolographie.

A cDNA encoding a 224-kDa Dictyostelium discoideum centrosomal protein (DdCP224) was isolated by immunoscreening. DdCP224 was detected at the centrosome and, more weakly, along microtubules throughout the entire cell cycle. Centrosomal localization does not require microtubules, suggesting that DdCP224 is a genuine centrosomal component. DdCP224 exhibits sequence identity to a weakly conserved class of microtubule-associated proteins including human TOGp and yeast Stu2p. Stu2p has a size of only approximately 100 kDa and corresponds to the N-terminal half of DdCP224. The functions of the N- and C-terminal halves of DdCP224 were investigated in the corresponding GFP-fusion mutants. Surprisingly, the N-terminal construct showed only cytosolic localization, whereas the C-terminal construct localized exclusively to the centrosome. This is unexpected because Stu2p is localized at the spindle pole body. Full-length DdCP224-GFP was present both at centrosomes and along microtubules. Furthermore, it bound to microtubules in vitro, unlike the two truncated mutants. Thus centrosome binding is determined by the C-terminal half and microtubule binding may require the interaction of the N- and C-terminal halves. Interestingly, cells expressing full-length DdCP224-GFP exhibit supernumerary centrosomes and show a cytokinesis defect, suggesting that DdCP224 plays an important role in centrosome duplication. These features are unique among the known centrosomal proteins.

A theological and historical study of the Gentiles and the Gentile missions in Luke and Acts. Dr Wilson examines Jesus' attitude to Gentiles and concludes that not only did he fail to anticipate a historical Gentile mission, but that his eschatological expectations logically disallowed it. Luke's views are then set against the tradition on the subject from Jesus up to and including Mark, and his theology is compared in detail with that of Paul. Dr Wilson goes on to consider the historical reliability of Acts and finds that most earlier assessments have been marred by oversimplification; Luke, he concludes, does intend to write good history but for a variety of reasons is not always successful. There has in recent years been a growing interest in the theology of Luke and this is a substantial addition to the literature on the subject. It will be of interest to all theologians and New Testament scholars.

Se presenta un estudio sistemático sobre la información radiometrica disponible para la transición Paleolítico Medio-Paleolítico Superior en el Suroeste de Europa. Los diferentes modelos para explicar el proceso demográfico que subyace en esta transición dependen en gran medida de la cronología radiocarbónica. Se observa que: 1) a mayor antiguedad las fechas sobre hueso muestran una mayor desvisación frente a las muestras sobre carbón, a menudo infravalorando estas varios miles de años BP y 2) que no hay pruebas de perduración de industrias de Paleolítico Medio durante las fases tempranas del Auriñaciense en el SW de Europa. Estos datos contradicen el modelo de “frontera del Ebro” que distingue industrias de Paleolítico Medio Tardío en el SW de la Península Ibérica de las industrias del Auriñaciense temprano en el NE. Por el contrario, 3) nuestros datos implican un modelo de cambios de población interregional que se contrae durante las fases aridas y de frío severo y que se expande durante las fases más calidas de los interestadios, surgiendo la idea de un desarrollo regional del Auriñaciense del SW europeo a partir de las industrias del Paleolítico Medio Tardío realizadas por los Neanderthales hace 40 kyr cal BC.

In its expansion to genomic, epidemiological and biomedical research, citizen science has been promoted as contributing to the democratisation of medical research and healthcare. At the same time, it has been criticised for reinforcing patterns of exclusion in health and biomedicine, and sometimes even creating new ones. Although citizen science has the potential to make biomedical research more inclusive, the benefits of current citizen science initiatives are not equally accessible for all people-in particular those who are resource-poor, located outside of traditional networks of healthcare services, or members of minorities and marginalised groups. In view of growing public investments in participatory research endeavours, we argue that it should be considered more explicitly if, and how, citizen science could help make research more inclusive, contribute to the public good, and possibly even lead to better and more equitable healthcare. Reflecting on emerging ethical concerns for scientific conduct and best medical practice, we propose a set of relevant considerations for researchers, practitioners, bioethicists, funders and participants who seek to advance ethical practices of citizen-led health initiatives, and address profound differences in position, privilege and power in research.

Das Judäa des Herodes. Ein Mittelmeerstaat in der Antike.

1 The intracarotid administration of alkylglycerols has been reported previously by us to be a novel strategy for increased delivery of various chemotherapeutic drugs to the normal brain and brain tumors in rats. 2 Effectiveness and structure-activity relations of the most promising pentyl- and hexylglycerol derivatives have been elucidated in vivo by analyzing the transfer of methotrexate (MTX) across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in normal rats. The effects were compared with BBB disruption using hypertonic mannitol or intracarotid infusion of bradykinin. Furthermore, toxicity of the alkylglycerols has been studied in long-term experiments. 3 Apart from 1-O-pentyldiglycerol, all alkylglycerols induced a concentration-dependent increase in MTX delivery to the brain varying from 1.1 to more than 300-fold compared to intra-arterial MTX alone. Enhanced barrier permeability rapidly approached baseline values within 5 and 120 min at the latest. Chemical structure, concentration, time schedule of injections and combination of different alkylglycerols were identified as instruments suited to regulate the MTX accumulation within a wide range. Mannitol 1.4 M resulted in very high MTX levels in the brain as observed using the highest concentrations of alkylglycerols. Intracarotid infusion of bradykinin had only a minor effect on the BBB. Using 1-O-pentylglycerol or 2-O-hexyldiglycerol, both cell culture experiments and long-term in vivo analyses including clinical, laboratory and histopathological evaluations revealed no signs of toxicity. 4 In summary, intracarotid short-chain alkylglycerols constitute a very effective and low toxic strategy for transient opening of the BBB to overcome the limited access of cytotoxic drugs to the brain.

The villin-type "headpiece" domain is a modular motif found at the extreme C-terminus of larger "core" domains in over 25 cytoskeletal proteins in plants and animals. Although headpiece is classified as an F-actin-binding domain, it has been suggested that some expressed fusion-proteins containing headpiece may lack F-actin-binding in vivo. To determine the intrinsic F-actin affinity of headpiece domains, we quantified the F-actin affinity of seven headpiece domains and three N-terminal truncations, under identical in vitro conditions. The constructs are folded and adopt the native headpiece structure. However, they show a wide range of affinities that can be grouped into high, low, and nonspecific-binding categories. Computer models of the structure and charged surface potential of these headpiece domains suggest features important for high F-actin affinity. We conclude that not all headpiece domains are intrinsically F-actin-binding motifs, and suggest that the surface charge distribution may be an important element for F-actin recognition.

During the first part of the twentieth century, German science led the world. The most important scientific institution in Germany was the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, including institutes devoted to different fields of scientific research. These researchers were not burdened by teaching obligations and enjoyed excellent financial and material support. When the National Socialists came to power in Germany, all of German society, including science, was affected. The picture that previously dominated our understanding of science under National Socialism from the end of the Second World War to the recent past - a picture of leading Nazis ignorant and unappreciative of modern science and of scientists struggling to resist the Nazis - needs to be revised. This book surveys the history of Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes under Hitler, illustrating definitively the cooperation, if not collaboration, between scientists and National Socialists in order to further the goals of autarky, racial hygiene, war, and genocide.

Abstract On the basis of twenty‐five assemblages, the author discusses and illustrates the Aurignacian signs, pendants and art objects of central and eastern Europe. The signs are shown to include a number of forms also present in the later Gravettian, where the subjects are more complicated. It appears that there is no significant difference between Aurignacian signs in western and in central and eastern Europe. As for the pendants, more differences are recognizable; in particular, stone pendants and incised tooth pendants are found more frequently in the French Aurignacian. Molluscs found on the sites indicate long‐distance contacts. It would seem that two distinct regional stylistic traditions are indicated by surviving representational objects: engravings and paintings are frequent in France, whereas figures carved in the round are more characteristic of the central European assemblages.

Eastern and north‐eastern Iran and the adjacent Kopet Dagh foothills in south‐western Turkmenistan have been postulated to be the region where the domestication of the two‐humped camel took place. However, none of the evidence so far brought forward for in situ domestication in this area holds up to closer serutiny. Moreover, the postpleistocene distribution of the wild camel ( Csmelus ferus ) did not include Central Asia. Consequently, we claim that the region where the two‐humped camel was domesticated must lie further to the east. Among the peoples with a long‐standing tradition in camel husbandry are the Chinese, as is illustrated by the antiquity of the texts on camel diseases and their treatment. In this contribution, the oldest camel treatise handed down in literature is presented and discussed.

The Imperial Cult in Judea under the Herodians and the Romans. Studies in the Political and Religious History of Judea 30 BC to 66 AD.

OBJECTIVES: In November 2015, the German Federal Parliament voted on a new legal regulation regarding assisted suicide. It was decided to amend the German Criminal Code so that any "regular, repetitive offer" (even on a non-profit basis) of assistance in suicide would now be considered a punishable offense. On July 2, 2015, a date which happened to be accompanied by great media interest in that it was the day that the first draft of said law was presented to Parliament, we surveyed 4th year medical students at the Technical University Munich on "physician-assisted suicide," "euthanasia" and "palliative sedation," based on a fictitious case vignette study. METHOD: The vignette study described two versions of a case in which a patient suffered from a nasopharyngeal carcinoma (physical suffering subjectively perceived as being unbearable vs. emotional suffering). The students were asked about the current legal norms for each respective course of action as well as their attitudes towards the ethical acceptability of these measures. RESULTS: Out of 301 students in total, 241 (80%) participated in the survey; 109 answered the version 1 questionnaire (physical suffering) and 132 answered the version 2 questionnaire (emotional suffering). The majority of students were able to assess the currently prevailing legal norms on palliative sedation (legal) and euthanasia (illegal) correctly (81.2% and 93.7%, respectively), while only a few students knew that physician-assisted suicide, at that point in time, did not constitute a criminal offense. In the case study that was presented, 83.3% of the participants considered palliative sedation and the simultaneous withholding of artificial nutrition and hydration as ethically acceptable, 51.2% considered physician-assisted suicide ethically legitimate, and 19.2% considered euthanasia ethically permissible. When comparing the results of versions 1 and 2, a significant difference could only be seen in the assessment of the legality of palliative sedation: it was considered legal more frequently in the physical suffering version (88.1% vs. 75.8%). CONCLUSION: The majority of the students surveyed wrongly assumed that physician-assisted suicide is a punishable offense in Germany. However, a narrow majority considered physician-assisted suicide ethically acceptable in the case study presented. Compared to euthanasia, more than twice as many participants considered physician-assisted suicide acceptable. There was no significant difference between personal attitudes towards palliative sedation, physician-assisted suicide or euthanasia in light of physical or emotional suffering. Educational programs in this field should be expanded both qualitatively and quantitatively, especially considering the relevance of the subject matter, the deficits within the knowledge of legal norms and the now even higher complexity of the legal situation due to the new law from December 2015.

Early North American railways chose different track gauges partly on the basis of differing engineering traditions and partly for mutual compatibility. The resulting dynamic process produced nine district common-guage regions by the 1860s. Growing demand for interregional traffic and increasing among railways yielded incentives to resolve this diversity, and the specific regional pattern of gauges led to selection pf 4'8.5” as the continental standard. The case offers support for aspects of differing views on the role of path dependence in determining features of the economy.

Abstract In this article the potential paleoecologic boundary conditions are discussed favoring prasinophyte prosperity commonly associated with sediments rich in organic carbon, as exemplified by palynologic case studies from the Northwest European Basin (Lower Jurassic Posidonia shale, Cretaceous Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary Event). Based on the literature of nutrient requirements of modern green algae and the evolution of photic-zone water chemistry throughout earth history, it is suggested that the enhanced availability of reduced nitrogen chemospecies, especially ammonium, in photic-zone waters is the ultimate cause for stimulating prasinophyte productivity. It is also suggested that the erosional suspension of suboxic-to-anoxic pore waters from shelf sediments or the vertical expansion of the redox zones from within sediments or the oceanic oxygen minimum zone are the main mechanisms for introducing reduced nitrogen chemospecies into these waters. Thus, changes in intensity and duration of suboxic-to-anoxic water conditions within the photic zone may be reflected by the corresponding presence and change respectively of significant proportions of prasinophyte phycomata within associated sediments. In addition, with respect to general water mass character, several arguments for a principal cooler water affinity of prasinophytes are suggested: (1) the accumulation of fossil—almost rock-building—prasinophyte deposits in higher paleolatitudes or in close temporal proximity to major global glaciation episodes; (2) the enhanced biochemical stability of ammonium within cooler waters; and (3) the principal modern main distribution of prasinophytes in cool-temperate waters and aquatic ice-covered regions.