University of North Carolina Wilmington

Denitrification is a critical process regulating the removal of bioavailable nitrogen (N) from natural and human-altered systems. While it has been extensively studied in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine systems, there has been limited communication among denitrification scientists working in these individual systems. Here, we compare rates of denitrification and controlling factors across a range of ecosystem types. We suggest that terrestrial, freshwater, and marine systems in which denitrification occurs can be organized along a continuum ranging from (1) those in which nitrification and denitrification are tightly coupled in space and time to (2) those in which nitrate production and denitrification are relatively decoupled. In aquatic ecosystems, N inputs influence denitrification rates whereas hydrology and geomorphology influence the proportion of N inputs that are denitrified. Relationships between denitrification and water residence time and N load are remarkably similar across lakes, river reaches, estuaries, and continental shelves. Spatially distributed global models of denitrification suggest that continental shelf sediments account for the largest portion (44%) of total global denitrification, followed by terrestrial soils (22%) and oceanic oxygen minimum zones (OMZs; 14%). Freshwater systems (groundwater, lakes, rivers) account for about 20% and estuaries 1% of total global denitrification. Denitrification of land-based N sources is distributed somewhat differently. Within watersheds, the amount of land-based N denitrified is generally highest in terrestrial soils, with progressively smaller amounts denitrified in groundwater, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and estuaries. A number of regional exceptions to this general trend of decreasing denitrification in a downstream direction exist, including significant denitrification in continental shelves of N from terrestrial sources. Though terrestrial soils and groundwater are responsible for much denitrification at the watershed scale, per-area denitrification rates in soils and groundwater (kg N x km(-2) x yr(-1)) are, on average, approximately one-tenth the per-area rates of denitrification in lakes, rivers, estuaries, continental shelves, or OMZs. A number of potential approaches to increase denitrification on the landscape, and thus decrease N export to sensitive coastal systems exist. However, these have not generally been widely tested for their effectiveness at scales required to significantly reduce N export at the whole watershed scale.

Ocean-going ships carry, as ballast, seawater that is taken on in port and released at subsequent ports of call. Plankton samples from Japanese ballast water released in Oregon contained 367 taxa. Most taxa with a planktonic phase in their life cycle were found in ballast water, as were all major marine habitat and trophic groups. Transport of entire coastal planktonic assemblages across oceanic barriers to similar habitats renders bays, estuaries, and inland waters among the most threatened ecosystems in the world. Presence of taxonomically difficult or inconspicuous taxa in these samples suggests that ballast water invasions are already pervasive.

Information sharing is a central process through which team members collectively utilize their available informational resources. The authors used meta-analysis to synthesize extant research on team information sharing. Meta-analytic results from 72 independent studies (total groups = 4,795; total N = 17,279) demonstrate the importance of information sharing to team performance, cohesion, decision satisfaction, and knowledge integration. Although moderators were identified, information sharing positively predicted team performance across all levels of moderators. The information sharing-team performance relationship was moderated by the representation of information sharing (as uniqueness or openness), performance criteria, task type, and discussion structure by uniqueness (a 3-way interaction). Three factors affecting team information processing were found to enhance team information sharing: task demonstrability, discussion structure, and cooperation. Three factors representing decreasing degrees of member redundancy were found to detract from team information sharing: information distribution, informational interdependence, and member heterogeneity.

This paper details MORPH a longitudinal face database developed for researchers investigating all facets of adult age-progression, e.g. face modeling, photo-realistic animation, face recognition, etc. This database contributes to several active research areas, most notably face recognition, by providing: the largest set of publicly available longitudinal images; longitudinal spans from a few months to over twenty years; and, the inclusion of key physical parameters that affect aging appearance. The direct contribution of this data corpus for face recognition is highlighted in the evaluation of a standard face recognition algorithm, which illustrates the impact that age-progression, has on recognition rates. Assessment of the efficacy of this algorithm is evaluated against the variables of gender and racial origin. This work further concludes that the problem of age-progression on face recognition (FR) is not unique to the algorithm used in this work.

We explore mixed data sampling (henceforth MIDAS) regression models. The regressions involve time series data sampled at different frequencies. Volatility and related processes are our prime focus, though the regression method has wider applications in macroeconomics and finance, among other areas. The regressions combine recent developments regarding estimation of volatility and a not-so-recent literature on distributed lag models. We study various lag structures to parameterize parsimoniously the regressions and relate them to existing models. We also propose several new extensions of the MIDAS framework. The paper concludes with an empirical section where we provide further evidence and new results on the risk-return trade-off. We also report empirical evidence on microstructure noise and volatility forecasting.

Two alternative methods for parceling questionnaire items for use in confirmatory analyses are presented. The first method requires that parcels must (a) pass a minimum standard of reliability and (b) provide indications of unidimensionality to be retained for analysis. The second method requires that parcels be equally representative of the multiple aspects of a domain. The parcels may then serve as adequate indicators for the general construct. The latter method is consistent with the rationale underlying aggregation of measures, a procedure currently recommended for improving the psychometric properties of behavioral measures of personality. The two methods for parceling and a comparison are illustrated with an empirical example.

Major theories of team effectiveness position emergent collective cognitive processes as central drivers of team performance. We meta-analytically cumulated 231 correlations culled from 65 independent studies of team cognition and its relations to teamwork processes, motivational states, and performance outcomes. We examined both broad relationships among cognition, behavior, motivation, and performance, as well as 3 underpinnings of team cognition as potential moderators of these relationships. Findings reveal there is indeed a cognitive foundation to teamwork; team cognition has strong positive relationships to team behavioral process, motivational states, and team performance. Meta-analytic regressions further indicate that team cognition explains significant incremental variance in team performance after the effects of behavioral and motivational dynamics have been controlled. The nature of emergence, form of cognition, and content of cognition moderate relationships among cognition, process, and performance, as do task interdependence and team type. Taken together, these findings not only cumulate extant research on team cognition but also provide a new interpretation of the impact of underlying dimensions of cognition as a way to frame and extend future research.

Research on violent television and films, video games, and music reveals unequivocal evidence that media violence increases the likelihood of aggressive and violent behavior in both immediate and long-term contexts. The effects appear larger for milder than for more severe forms of aggression, but the effects on severe forms of violence are also substantial (r = .13 to .32) when compared with effects of other violence risk factors or medical effects deemed important by the medical community (e.g., effect of aspirin on heart attacks). The research base is large; diverse in methods, samples, and media genres; and consistent in overall findings. The evidence is clearest within the most extensively researched domain, television and film violence. The growing body of video-game research yields essentially the same conclusions. Short-term exposure increases the likelihood of physically and verbally aggressive behavior, aggressive thoughts, and aggressive emotions. Recent large-scale longitudinal studies provide converging evidence linking frequent exposure to violent media in childhood with aggression later in life, including physical assaults and spouse abuse. Because extremely violent criminal behaviors (e.g., forcible rape, aggravated assault, homicide) are rare, new longitudinal studies with larger samples are needed to estimate accurately how much habitual childhood exposure to media violence increases the risk for extreme violence. Well-supported theory delineates why and when exposure to media violence increases aggression and violence. Media violence produces short-term increases by priming existing aggressive scripts and cognitions, increasing physiological arousal, and triggering an automatic tendency to imitate observed behaviors. Media violence produces long-term effects via several types of learning processes leading to the acquisition of lasting (and automatically accessible) aggressive scripts, interpretational schemas, and aggression-supporting beliefs about social behavior, and by reducing individuals' normal negative emotional responses to violence (i.e., desensitization). Certain characteristics of viewers (e.g., identification with aggressive characters), social environments (e.g., parental influences), and media content (e.g., attractiveness of the perpetrator) can influence the degree to which media violence affects aggression, but there are some inconsistencies in research results. This research also suggests some avenues for preventive intervention (e.g., parental supervision, interpretation, and control of children's media use). However, extant research on moderators suggests that no one is wholly immune to the effects of media violence. Recent surveys reveal an extensive presence of violence in modern media. Furthermore, many children and youth spend an inordinate amount of time consuming violent media. Although it is clear that reducing exposure to media violence will reduce aggression and violence, it is less clear what sorts of interventions will produce a reduction in exposure. The sparse research literature suggests that counterattitudinal and parental-mediation interventions are likely to yield beneficial effects, but that media literacy interventions by themselves are unsuccessful. Though the scientific debate over whether media violence increases aggression and violence is essentially over, several critical tasks remain. Additional laboratory and field studies are needed for a better understanding of underlying psychological processes, which eventually should lead to more effective interventions. Large-scale longitudinal studies would help specify the magnitude of media-violence effects on the most severe types of violence. Meeting the larger societal challenge of providing children and youth with a much healthier media diet may prove to be more difficult and costly, especially if the scientific, news, public policy, and entertainment communities fail to educate the general public about the real risks of media-violence exposure to children and youth.

BACKGROUND: The rising temperature of the world's oceans has become a major threat to coral reefs globally as the severity and frequency of mass coral bleaching and mortality events increase. In 2005, high ocean temperatures in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean resulted in the most severe bleaching event ever recorded in the basin. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Satellite-based tools provided warnings for coral reef managers and scientists, guiding both the timing and location of researchers' field observations as anomalously warm conditions developed and spread across the greater Caribbean region from June to October 2005. Field surveys of bleaching and mortality exceeded prior efforts in detail and extent, and provided a new standard for documenting the effects of bleaching and for testing nowcast and forecast products. Collaborators from 22 countries undertook the most comprehensive documentation of basin-scale bleaching to date and found that over 80% of corals bleached and over 40% died at many sites. The most severe bleaching coincided with waters nearest a western Atlantic warm pool that was centered off the northern end of the Lesser Antilles. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Thermal stress during the 2005 event exceeded any observed from the Caribbean in the prior 20 years, and regionally-averaged temperatures were the warmest in over 150 years. Comparison of satellite data against field surveys demonstrated a significant predictive relationship between accumulated heat stress (measured using NOAA Coral Reef Watch's Degree Heating Weeks) and bleaching intensity. This severe, widespread bleaching and mortality will undoubtedly have long-term consequences for reef ecosystems and suggests a troubled future for tropical marine ecosystems under a warming climate.

IMPORTANCE: Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) remains one of the most prevalent and troublesome adverse events experienced by patients with cancer during and after therapy. OBJECTIVE: To perform a meta-analysis to establish and compare the mean weighted effect sizes (WESs) of the 4 most commonly recommended treatments for CRF-exercise, psychological, combined exercise and psychological, and pharmaceutical-and to identify independent variables associated with treatment effectiveness. DATA SOURCES: PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library were searched from the inception of each database to May 31, 2016. STUDY SELECTION: Randomized clinical trials in adults with cancer were selected. Inclusion criteria consisted of CRF severity as an outcome and testing of exercise, psychological, exercise plus psychological, or pharmaceutical interventions. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Studies were independently reviewed by 12 raters in 3 groups using a systematic and blinded process for reconciling disagreement. Effect sizes (Cohen d) were calculated and inversely weighted by SE. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Severity of CRF was the primary outcome. Study quality was assessed using a modified 12-item version of the Physiotherapy Evidence-Based Database scale (range, 0-12, with 12 indicating best quality). RESULTS: From 17 033 references, 113 unique studies articles (11 525 unique participants; 78% female; mean age, 54 [range, 35-72] years) published from January 1, 1999, through May 31, 2016, had sufficient data. Studies were of good quality (mean Physiotherapy Evidence-Based Database scale score, 8.2; range, 5-12) with no evidence of publication bias. Exercise (WES, 0.30; 95% CI, 0.25-0.36; P < .001), psychological (WES, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.21-0.33; P < .001), and exercise plus psychological interventions (WES, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.13-0.38; P < .001) improved CRF during and after primary treatment, whereas pharmaceutical interventions did not (WES, 0.09; 95% CI, 0.00-0.19; P = .05). Results also suggest that CRF treatment effectiveness was associated with cancer stage, baseline treatment status, experimental treatment format, experimental treatment delivery mode, psychological mode, type of control condition, use of intention-to-treat analysis, and fatigue measures (WES range, -0.91 to 0.99). Results suggest that the effectiveness of behavioral interventions, specifically exercise and psychological interventions, is not attributable to time, attention, and education, and specific intervention modes may be more effective for treating CRF at different points in the cancer treatment trajectory (WES range, 0.09-0.22). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Exercise and psychological interventions are effective for reducing CRF during and after cancer treatment, and they are significantly better than the available pharmaceutical options. Clinicians should prescribe exercise or psychological interventions as first-line treatments for CRF.

The National Institute of Mental Health strategic plan for advancing psychiatric neuroscience calls for an acceleration of discovery and the delineation of developmental trajectories for risk and resilience across the lifespan. To attain these objectives, sufficiently powered datasets with broad and deep phenotypic characterization, state-of-the-art neuroimaging, and genetic samples must be generated and made openly available to the scientific community. The enhanced Nathan Kline Institute-Rockland Sample (NKI-RS) is a response to this need. NKI-RS is an ongoing, institutionally centered endeavor aimed at creating a large-scale (N > 1000), deeply phenotyped, community-ascertained, lifespan sample (ages 6-85 years old) with advanced neuroimaging and genetics. These data will be publically shared, openly, and prospectively (i.e., on a weekly basis). Herein, we describe the conceptual basis of the NKI-RS, including study design, sampling considerations, and steps to synchronize phenotypic and neuroimaging assessment. Additionally, we describe our process for sharing the data with the scientific community while protecting participant confidentiality, maintaining an adequate database, and certifying data integrity. The pilot phase of the NKI-RS, including challenges in recruiting, characterizing, imaging, and sharing data, is discussed while also explaining how this experience informed the final design of the enhanced NKI-RS. It is our hope that familiarity with the conceptual underpinnings of the enhanced NKI-RS will facilitate harmonization with future data collection efforts aimed at advancing psychiatric neuroscience and nosology.

The volume of research on fear of crime in the United States is substantial and continues to regularly appear in sociology and criminology journals. Despite the amount of research on the subject, the measurement procedures most frequently used are suspect because of theoretical and methodological shortcomings. We present a conceptual definition of fear of crime and then systematically review the way it has been measured in research over the last fifteen years. The review indicates that whik omnibus fear of crime and risk of crime measures are only moderately correlated, a substantial number of studies have used risk measures and generalized to fear. Suggestions for future research are offered.

Our ability to correlate biological evolution with climate change, geological evolution, and other historical patterns is essential to understanding the processes that shape biodiversity. Combining data from the fossil record with molecular phylogenetics represents an exciting synthetic approach to this challenge. The first molecular divergence dating analysis (Zuckerkandl and Pauling 1962) was based on a measure of the amino acid differences in the hemoglobin molecule, with replacement rates established (calibrated) using paleontological age estimates from textbooks (e.g., Dodson 1960). Since that time, the amount of molecular sequence data has increased dramatically, affording ever-greater opportunities to apply molecular divergence approaches to fundamental problems in evolutionary biology. To capitalize on these opportunities, increasingly sophisticated divergence dating methods have been, and continue to be, developed. In contrast, comparatively, little attention has been devoted to critically assessing the paleontological and associated geological data used in divergence dating analyses. The lack of rigorous protocols for assigning calibrations based on fossils raises serious questions about the credibility of divergence dating results (e.g., Shaul and Graur 2002; Brochu et al. 2004; Graur and Martin 2004; Hedges and Kumar 2004; Reisz and Müller 2004a, 2004b; Theodor 2004; van Tuinen and Hadly 2004a, 2004b; van Tuinen et al. 2004; Benton and Donoghue 2007; Donoghue and Benton 2007; Parham and Irmis 2008; Ksepka 2009; Benton et al. 2009; Heads 2011). The assertion that incorrect calibrations will negatively influence divergence dating studies is not controversial. Attempts to identify incorrect calibrations through the use of a posteriori methods are available (e.g., Near and Sanderson 2004; Near et al. 2005; Rutschmann et al. 2007; Marshall 2008; Pyron 2010; Dornburg et al. 2011). We do not deny that a posteriori methods are a useful means of evaluating calibrations, but there can be no substitute for a priori assessment of the veracity of paleontological data. Incorrect calibrations, those based upon fossils that are phylogenetically misplaced or assigned incorrect ages, clearly introduce error into an analysis. Consequently, thorough and explicit justification of both phylogenetic and chronologic age assessments is necessary for all fossils used for calibration. Such explicit justifications will help to ensure that divergence dating studies are based on the best available data. Unfortunately, the majority of previously published calibrations lack explicit explanations and justifications of the age and phylogenetic position of the key fossils. In the absence of explicit justifications, it is difficult to distinguish between correct and incorrect calibrations, and it becomes difficult to reevaluate previous claims in light of new data. Paleontology is a dynamic science, with new data and perspectives constantly emerging as a result of new discoveries (see Kimura 2010 for a recent case where the age of the earliest known record of a clade was more than doubled). Calibrations based upon the best available evidence at a given time can become inappropriate as the discovery of new specimens, new phylogenetic analyses, and ongoing stratigraphic and geochronologic revisions refine our understanding of the fossil record. Our primary goals in this paper are to establish the best practices for justifying fossils used for the temporal calibration of molecular phylogenies. Our examples derive mainly, but not exclusively, from the vertebrate fossil record. We hope that our recommendations will lead to more credible calibrations and, as a result, more reliable divergence dates throughout the tree of life. A secondary goal is to help the community (researchers, editors, and reviewers) who might be unfamiliar with fossils to understand and overcome the challenges associated with using paleontological data. In order to accomplish these goals, we present a specimen-based protocol for selecting and documenting relevant fossils and discuss future directions for evaluating and utilizing phylogenetic and temporal data from the fossil record. We likewise encourage biologists relying on nonfossil calibrations for molecular divergence estimates (e.g., ages of island or mountain range formations, continental drift, and biomarkers) to develop their own set of rigorous guidelines so that their calibrations may also be evaluated in a systematic way. Most studies use a Bayesian framework for estimating divergence dates with probability curves between a minimum and a maximum bound to represent calibrations (time priors) (Thorne et al. 1998; Drummond et al. 2006; Yang 2006; Yang and Rannala 2006). An appropriately constructed fossil calibration uses the oldest assigned fossil of a taxon as the basis for its minimum age and then constructs these other parameters around it (Benton and Donoghue 2007; Donoghue and Benton 2007). One key to improving the use of paleontological data is recognizing that this first step can be tied explicitly to one or a small set of museum specimens, creating a readily auditable chain of evidence. To minimize error and maximize clarity, all calibration data should be derived explicitly from specific fossil specimens. If links between calibration data and specimens cannot be made, then there are serious questions about the validity of the proposed time priors. In this respect, the fossil specimens used for calibrations represent a standard, much in the same way that a holotype specimen (or type series) is a taxonomic standard. In both cases, these specimens provide a necessary reference point for future inquiries. The explicit reporting of specimen data is just as crucial to the scientific integrity of a fossil calibration study as is making genetic sequences publicly available or reporting analytical methods. Thus, it is worthwhile to compile, reiterate, and expand on the caveats from previous studies that pertain to the construction and reporting of fossil calibrations (e.g., Graur and Martin 2004; Hedges and Kumar 2004; van Tuinen and Hadly 2004a, 2004b; Benton and Donoghue 2007; Donoghue and Benton 2007; Gandolfo et al. 2008; Parham and Irmis 2008; Benton et al. 2009; Ksepka 2009; Sanders et al. 2010) while providing a simple and explicit protocol (in checklist form) to address them. The checklist can be divided into justifying phylogenetic position and justifying age and In cases, the data to calibrations are in a but to be In to derived from is explicitly as for a rigorous and explicit approach is for justifying the use of paleontological and geological data for divergence The can be used to develop new calibrations and as a checklist for and justifying previously published calibrations based on fossils. If all are then a calibration can be of that all the relevant and data should be of specimens to the taxon should be An of the or an phylogenetic analysis that the should be on the of and molecular data should be The and stratigraphic the best of from the should be to a published age and of age should be a fossil used for calibration be based on a specimen that all the that it to be assigned to a taxonomic are from specimens, are to be from a divergence dating studies that use paleontological data for calibrations on from phylogenetic that are based on of specimens to a taxon In cases, the basis for a taxonomic can be as as documenting that the specimen was from the same or where other specimens previously Consequently, are a in et al. Parham fossil are not it is necessary to the and of specimens. may be to specimens from to a taxon there are or through phylogenetic analysis et al. 2004; et al. 2009; In where previously cannot be it is necessary to the calibration to a of specimens (e.g., and Parham or the from the calibration. Incorrect phylogenetic of fossil calibrations can introduce into divergence estimates Brochu van Tuinen and Hedges 2004; et al. dating studies on the paleontological for calibration but of the oldest of a have been in a phylogenetic analysis. Gandolfo et al. in incorrect and taxonomic to inappropriate fossil is a for that are a fossil in a taxon than the data can in the (e.g., and 2005; et al. 2010; Sanders et al. The that may use the same taxon to to biological the and may be the fossil record of is we the use of an approach to and phylogenetically specimens that are relevant for paleontological guidelines can also be to fossils (e.g., in the case that their are and evidence for the of a based on explicit and et al. 2008; et al. 2011). fossils are have phylogenetic the analytical on paleontological it is that evidence the taxonomic of relevant be explicitly A is the of to the oldest geological record of a based upon evidence. can be on provide evidence to are of or with specimens, it can be difficult to distinguish the fossil to the or the of the clade that it is used to the earliest will the of the of the and so assigning fossils to the or the of a clade of evolution that is not fossil specimens of may not be as lack one or more of the as a of or secondary Donoghue and 2009; et al. is for that are on the basis of molecular evidence but for is known (e.g., or et al. is also to in of that evolution their In those cases, the that might be of in the time of divergence from the may be difficult to the to the phylogenetic of specimen used for is not to a paper that the taxon or the of used in the phylogenetic of fossils it to The phylogenetic position of a fossil taxon can be specimens are a thorough of the paleontological is to that the recent study is claims about the oldest of a may as new data and are A of this is the case of the oldest the are fossils that to be the clade of of the of do not the In more recent analyses, have been the tree et al. and are to be on the of and where no evidence about a minimum for in phylogenetic position from about the of than from in study or discovery of specimens. specimens, new of specimens, and phylogenetic lead to revisions in the phylogenetic of fossils. as the may and stratigraphic associated with fossil specimens, but relevant phylogenetic justifying the taxonomic of these specimens is rates of in and to be as as and the of taxonomic in as the to our specimen-based are useful for the oldest specimens to a given is necessary to the phylogenetic position of a specimen for calibration. In the best cases, fossil specimens that to be assigned to a with In these assigning fossils to is of the tree the fossil will the and as a calibration for all in it is In other cases, the position of a fossil is and is on the of a specific analysis. In to the position of a taxon given (see between of and molecular phylogenetic is a that has been (Benton et al. 2009; et al. 2010; et al. from and molecular can fossil calibrations in In cases, the of a fossil may become to about it can be used to If data of the of also may be to of evolution, the of fossils in a tree et al. 2005; et al. and molecular are in the phylogenetic position of a fossil cannot be to a a that a fossil taxon is justification for a fossil calibration. A fossil with can be assigned to a specific with of the the fossil will the and as a calibration for all it is phylogenetic from data can the position of fossil In the a fossil is to be to and the that the fossil A molecular study with a and making the of the fossil If the fossil is to then it If the fossil is to then it is a calibration for just one to can the of and of fossils. In the a fossil is in the to A molecular analysis the of the and In a the for the clade are in a way and so using the fossil to clade be problems of and molecular can be (e.g., Brochu and 2008; and 2008; Ksepka or through the use of a in and, the phylogenetic position of known from fossils (e.g., et al. and Parham 2006). those approaches and explicitly to the data from fossil specimens with the of molecular about the of molecular data. methods do not so a approach to based on or is In cases, it may be that the and molecular data are so that a evidence a molecular approach are for the position of an given the phylogenetic position of use of the oldest fossil specimens to has a probability of error into the analysis (see et al. et al. We using to divergence dating analyses. are to analysis is the of specimens used for calibrations be The with a fossil can be to a specific in a stratigraphic but on the data might be to a in a stratigraphic or a or or a specimens, those more than or those derived from the lack stratigraphic and data and so have for calibration fossil in can be assigned to its and to a stratigraphic that In the best cases, calibration data will be based upon fossils with and stratigraphic that can be assigned to a in a The with a fossil can be a stratigraphic framework will have a on estimates of its and in light of in revisions of and in (e.g., formations, and are the key used to correlate and the sequence in a have (e.g., and explicitly and fossil taxon has and geological that provide a basis for its The given is for on the can be a useful minimum calibration for specimens of are known and the of is the oldest specimens. is from the in the it is from the the it is from is of a stratigraphic for the the can be in the the can be assigned to the and a the of this and is to represent in the stratigraphic where et al. the is to on the basis of ages and methods based on the et al. specimen a minimum age of are of in of or represent of Most do not represent of may be might represent of with of the time range at do the between with geochronologic of the of a fossil to a a of the age of the fossil that can then be used to establish a age as is not a stratigraphic is or with the of new and new or and can lead to of the present at a (e.g., and The dynamic of the of for fossil specimens in order to the of stratigraphic and upon divergence dating calibrations and, divergence time dating ages, but do not use or The age of a fossil is the of for the geochronologic data for dates can be difficult to establish for a and much and so provide a more framework for reporting fossil The of fossil to ages a chain of through on the basis of geological and paleontological evidence (e.g., van Tuinen and Hadly Benton et al. 2009; 2011). for the majority of calibrations, this is not the used in are not The age of a fossil is not it is established through than through dating at the in the fossil was age for a fossil specimen is the best and can be through dating methods have dating an order of in the as a result of new of and methods (e.g., et al. 2004; 2006; et al. and ages that to (e.g., et al. of this ongoing it is to the basis upon the age is If the chain of is the of revisions will be its our for justifying the age of a calibration point is that the of from paleontological studies should reference or published that ages (e.g., and et al. et al. 2004; 2010; and on are constantly and can become these it for to A of this step in the protocol the of the age from the geological a minimum age the age of the fossil should be used the of the relevant time than the of a in the a fossil the of the to it is the age from an will the minimum from the age of it is to that the minimum age is one a and is to not on its the age of the minimum age should the age of the fossil the error associated with the geochronologic age Tuinen et al. 2004; Donoghue and Benton 2007; Benton and Donoghue 2007; Benton et al. age should be as a The assigning based on the age of the fossil has been (e.g., van Tuinen et al. 2004; Benton and Donoghue 2007; Donoghue and Benton 2007). may to use in of or but The of a minimum age that the estimates for a fossil should be The justification for the might to a but paleontological data are established and that to introduce error into the analysis. In cases, of or the age of a fossil may not be a stratigraphic in cases, it is to much more and dates than are given a stratigraphic data may not be available in the the fossil specimens used for calibrations, and so it is necessary to evidence from fossil may not be to those data more than molecular but the specimen and ages in a may the the of dates In to the of the specimen-based we that about the of that or Such of calibrations in (e.g., Benton and Donoghue 2007; et al. 2007; Benton et al. it for to the justification the relevant and We should that through and analysis that the calibrations be or In order to the evolution of justifications, we that (or of should become a of calibration The justification of the phylogenetic position and age of a fossil is an first step to a in a divergence dating analysis. In to can be assigned time may not have this step the data from the fossil the minimum bound of a calibration The maximum bound and the of the are also based on the fossil but in a much more probability of the oldest known The of these other parameters from a protocol for them. the maximum is established as than all the oldest to a time the and for the of the are but no are the maximum an approach that into and phylogenetic has been proposed (e.g., Reisz and Müller Müller and Reisz 2005; Benton and Donoghue 2007; Donoghue and Benton 2007; Benton et al. approach is and from the fossil established Marshall who use this approach should provide justifying their so that can and, the of Benton and Donoghue and and the maximum should be and Most studies use a Bayesian framework for estimating divergence dates with probability curves between minimum and maximum In may be of the fossil but there is no way to parameters and and of little more than A of recent studies that these parameters are not et al. The of these are et al. 2010; et al. and et al. the that a is to that have a on results et al. et al. is a of molecular divergence dating The of methods for estimating maximum and probability curves should be a (see In order to the of our specimen-based we apply it to used calibrations in the vertebrate of the tree of the and the from A of the the of the paleontological data for these The of the specimen-based protocol to these results in new We also provide examples of our calibration as as maximum the the approach of Benton and Donoghue of ages for point calibrations, The data for this can be in The of Paleontology and holotype of et al. that the of (in the clade a of it in the clade also et al. a previously proposed calibration point for et al. can be in it the processes of the at the for the is the and the of the of the an is it a of the that is to the of the the of the the a is present at the of the of the for of of into the are on the and it the of of the et al. 2011). The of et al. is with molecular of that a (e.g., and 1998; Hedges and and et al. et al. 2005; et al. 2007; et al. 2009; et al. et al. et al. molecular data have for a clade and and et al. et al. or a clade and for these an where are the taxon to a is et al. et 2005; et al. The majority of recent molecular a et al. 2005; et al. 2007; et al. 2009; et al. 2009; et al. and of as or not the oldest calibration point or the phylogenetic of of the vertebrate fossils that are to be to other in and 2005; et al. is relevant is that the an and that is in age and and to other and 2007; and the also the taxon and a taxon in throughout et al. and 2005; and The data that these the and The is with ages, so the of the is to et al. The and is one of the fundamental calibrations for vertebrate studies (e.g., et al. 2007; et al. it as an calibration for both and molecular (e.g., et al. 2002; and 2006; 2007; and 2010) and is relevant to in (Benton and Donoghue 2007). used a secondary calibration for this has been and Martin 2004; Müller and Reisz on the to have not been used for calibration the earliest fossils from the and Reisz 2005; Benton and Donoghue 2007). Müller and Reisz proposed an age of for this based on the of the the of the is using recent age data et al. is phylogenetically as a of the (e.g., and 2006; 2007; and 2007; et al. 2011). its age is is from the of the in this has been to the using vertebrate and and this is with et al. and age data and Unfortunately, vertebrate is in (e.g., et al. 2009; Irmis et al. so the age of is not an age for this it a minimum age of divergence for the of et al. studies have this calibration (e.g., et al. Benton and Donoghue proposed an age of for this based on the of the from the of is a for the it has been in a phylogenetic and there is evidence that it is a of phylogenetically the and et al. from the of a that is the oldest of the of phylogenetically this fossil is no than also problems in the age of is vertebrate (see et al. et al. from the but these the same problems as other (see and are no than from the of was first as a of and with this phylogenetic of the specimen et al. that it to the age of a minimum for the for the maximum age for is difficult recent fossil discoveries have the age of divergence for this fossil evidence that the earliest based on the that a of have to the et al. but this not the that of will be to have a the of the with present in and et al. 2011). this (e.g., the the with We that the age of the oldest of the but to the a for a maximum it is the oldest fossil and all fossils. is clearly as a and and is to the and The is ages to that we do not of the is we that a maximum for be studies inappropriate calibrations that have error into divergence dating (e.g., Graur and Martin 2004; Gandolfo et al. 2008; Ksepka 2009; Sanders et al. In order to the of the specimen-based protocol can identify inappropriate calibrations, we examples and In the the published minimum age cannot be with specimen-based evidence so we a much minimum age in the the published minimum age cannot be with specimen evidence. In we cannot identify specimen that will all the of the protocol for that and so that future do not is not that these be but then it not be the fossil data calibrations is clearly to data into analysis. The checklist is an first step to other incorrect calibrations and more reliable time priors. calibrations are more to be of will molecular divergence dates more and provide in A specimen-based protocol will attention on between the fossil record and published calibration making it for to identify and correct and refine calibrations as new data to the reporting of data in (e.g., our is a crucial first In to providing this we identify as the for more methods for selecting parameters of time maximum and probability and the associated with from In both cases, can be in our checklist protocol will help identify the oldest fossil of a that can a time with an minimum fossils the time of the represent (e.g., Marshall Benton and Benton and Donoghue 2007). The probability of the oldest fossil is the other Bayesian calibration parameters to these parameters estimates of that to the of a et al. for of fossil and to provide of in the fossil The amount of to rigorous paleontological for is To studies have of fossil with of record at small taxonomic or Benton et al. 2004; and 2007; and for the of time priors. approach was to Bayesian and 2010; and 2010) on dates that be as Bayesian for divergence dating but we do not of studies that have this of time based on the temporal of and then used as time for divergence dating et al. 2011). The and of these and other methods to time parameters should be a for the divergence dating the of will be the of relevant data. genetic sequences is not the but the will more from in order to and the data from the fossil record. A the problems we address is the associated with from the first step of the specimen-based specimen and justifying is a for a molecular a for their Such challenges can be through or a study that has the are not but also introduce and these data be of time or at more The step is to that the and of paleontological calibration data to the way that molecular sequence data are on The is an for this as the based on Benton and Donoghue We can a of that et al. that is to other of biological data as the and the of We encourage and to a more providing data that the in and to to provide these data to their have to calibration data for divergence If paleontological data can be to their position in this it will result in more and the to to be explicitly with molecular will encourage the of phylogenetic for of data and for future (e.g., differences in rates of and molecular evolution, between and The recommendations to explicitly ages will and with The for more to maximum dates should the of methods for the fossil record. on the fossils will all the of to the we can a new community of to develop a more and rigorous approach to the study of evolution and the of life. can be in the data was the and of the of the of and a and The and and from the is the to the was through an from the of and are for their and was at a in in The of at the of is for this of with and the fossil record. We for to use the of from the for

Dietary vitamin A deficiency causes eye disease in 40 million children each year and places 140 to 250 million at risk for health disorders. Many children in sub-Saharan Africa subsist on maize-based diets. Maize displays considerable natural variation for carotenoid composition, including vitamin A precursors alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin. Through association analysis, linkage mapping, expression analysis, and mutagenesis, we show that variation at the lycopene epsilon cyclase (lcyE) locus alters flux down alpha-carotene versus beta-carotene branches of the carotenoid pathway. Four natural lcyE polymorphisms explained 58% of the variation in these two branches and a threefold difference in provitamin A compounds. Selection of favorable lcyE alleles with inexpensive molecular markers will now enable developing-country breeders to more effectively produce maize grain with higher provitamin A levels.

Sponges (phylum Porifera) are early-diverging metazoa renowned for establishing complex microbial symbioses. Here we present a global Porifera microbiome survey, set out to establish the ecological and evolutionary drivers of these host-microbe interactions. We show that sponges are a reservoir of exceptional microbial diversity and major contributors to the total microbial diversity of the world's oceans. Little commonality in species composition or structure is evident across the phylum, although symbiont communities are characterized by specialists and generalists rather than opportunists. Core sponge microbiomes are stable and characterized by generalist symbionts exhibiting amensal and/or commensal interactions. Symbionts that are phylogenetically unique to sponges do not disproportionally contribute to the core microbiome, and host phylogeny impacts complexity rather than composition of the symbiont community. Our findings support a model of independent assembly and evolution in symbiont communities across the entire host phylum, with convergent forces resulting in analogous community organization and interactions.

A strategy for easing the tensions facing suppliers and distributors in their channel relationships may be the adoption of market-oriented behaviors. The authors develop a model of likely effects and empirically examine the consequences of a supplier's market orientation on the distributor's market orientation and other channel relationship factors. Results indicate that a supplier's market-oriented behaviors directly or indirectly affect all the channel relationship factors examined from the distributor's perspective, specifically the distributor's market orientation, trust, cooperative norms, commitment, and satisfaction with financial performance.

The importance of restoring filter-feeders, such as the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica, to mitigate the effects of eutrophication (e.g. in Chesapeake Bay) is currently under debate. The argument that bivalve molluscs alone cannot control phytoplankton blooms and reduce hypoxia oversimplifies a more complex issue, namely that ecosystem engineering species make manifold contributions to ecosystem services. Although further discussion and research leading to a more complete understanding is required, oysters and other molluscs (e.g. mussels) in estuarine ecosystems provide services far beyond the mere top-down control of phytoplankton blooms, such as (1) seston filtration, (2) benthic–pelagic coupling, (3) creation of refugia from predation, (4) creation of feeding habitat for juveniles and adults of mobile species, and for sessile stages of species that attach to molluscan shells, and (5) provision of nesting habitat.

We assess climate impacts of global warming using ongoing observations and paleoclimate data. We use Earth's measured energy imbalance, paleoclimate data, and simple representations of the global carbon cycle and temperature to define emission reductions needed to stabilize climate and avoid potentially disastrous impacts on today's young people, future generations, and nature. A cumulative industrial-era limit of ∼500 GtC fossil fuel emissions and 100 GtC storage in the biosphere and soil would keep climate close to the Holocene range to which humanity and other species are adapted. Cumulative emissions of ∼1000 GtC, sometimes associated with 2°C global warming, would spur "slow" feedbacks and eventual warming of 3-4°C with disastrous consequences. Rapid emissions reduction is required to restore Earth's energy balance and avoid ocean heat uptake that would practically guarantee irreversible effects. Continuation of high fossil fuel emissions, given current knowledge of the consequences, would be an act of extraordinary witting intergenerational injustice. Responsible policymaking requires a rising price on carbon emissions that would preclude emissions from most remaining coal and unconventional fossil fuels and phase down emissions from conventional fossil fuels.

Fatty acids (FA) represent a large group of molecules that comprise the majority of lipids found in all organisms. Their great diversity, biochemical restrictions and, in some cases, unique origin among plants and animals has fostered a number of areas of research, ranging from assessment of animal nutrition and metabolism, to investigating trophic interactions and ecosystem structure. Over the past three decades, we have observed the use of FA develop from a potential tool for delineating food webs (Ackman and Eaton 1966) to a powerful technique for quantitative assessment of predator diets (Iverson et al. that have the FA found in predator found in have and et al. et al. et al. et al. and quantitative of et al. et al. and and of the and of et al. et al. et al. the FA a predator in a of the of quantitative FA et al. have in the use of FA to the and diets of trophic and that the use of FA tool a and that a of have to FA and to the of we some in the from the the and of FA to among we and to for the and of FA in the of we and of the we to and and the to FA to and food webs in three in FA (Iverson of the predator we in among and et al. et al. et al. use of FA the use of the of a unique FA found in a predator that to a origin and in FA in for of FA of among FA that to a in the in et al. and in to use FA to from FA of predator and (Iverson et al. a to the of FA that to that observed in the for predator FA of the FA of all potential to in and et al. et al. of of FA the of that to of and and for all of the FA of the and the to of FA and of the of to a that the of and to to the use of FA for trophic interactions in trophic we in to use FA in a of and to and and and and potential the and for and some to and the we in the use of a group of that the of in in and lipids that FA of structure. FA of to and to a and the FA in food of and of and some (Iverson and in and food webs trophic the FA that in for of FA found in and of to the FA and in in et al. FA of to represent the in and that in the of of FA and of all and the FA and FA of the number of the number of and the of the to the group that a group use the of has the has of a have to the of the to the that the of the of and the of to the group and the has the of the FA the in of FA FA a of the number of the number of and the of the to the group that all FA a FA that Their in the food to in FA and and FA FA FA some FA a the to the the the FA a the FA in and to a FA represent the of lipids and the majority of lipids found in and of three FA molecules to a FA the FA and the of FA in and and FA of three FA and a of in the of the FA from the and the of a FA to a and in a to a FA and a and to a a group to the of the group to a of in of a of the have to a a to the the of of the FA and and to that to a of to of a FA to a the FA and the have the FA have a of of to in in of and all and some and of in (Ackman et al. and et al. found in the and of and et al. and comprise the majority of lipids in the of and et al. the of FA to a that a of the of all of the of lipids and to FA in to in and of group of the a a to the in of of the FA from of the of a to the lipids to in a of ranging from to and found the food in and in the of and found in of (Ackman of lipids and and to the FA of organisms. and and et al. of all of and to the of FA in predator FA of predator the of three FA that in FA that some the and and FA from in the to the potential from in and the to FA of FA from that the of a from the predator FA of of and in FA the to FA that to the and we of in to animals in the in the of to predator FA to of and FA and and the and a and the lipids to FA and, in the of a and the of the lipids and the FA from of in the to and FA to the et al. FA that in predator lipids have from that predator and, have to the FA for for FA in and all FA in in in the of that the FA and of the of in animals have a to FA in of in FA FA in the of in to that in the (Iverson et al. that of FA metabolism, the of FA and FA the of that the in to FA and in the to the to FA number of the FA the of FA for and in and a predator FA in a in in that have to use the FA in the to the for the of in that the of in from and that of FA to for the of FA to for and to the and of in a predator has to FA to a et al. FA in a predator that of all FA some of the of the has from the of FA and to the of FA of to that of of and and all we the and FA of the a FA that the to a a the the FA FA the that to and, and FA the of in to the of the a that to the of the a that the of some and FA to the FA in the that to to all that FA FA FA and of the of FA from to in the to in FA to the to FA the the of FA and and of the of FA and to and and and the of diets of from in of that and a in the of of to of and of FA that have and to a to the FA in the of some and to of of and observed (Iverson and et al. the has that in to of et al. of and et al. of in and have that and to from et al. the of to from of and the the and to for in of (Iverson et al. et al. of FA of FA from and to and and animals and for a predator a all the FA that in to and the animal a of and the the of from and we that the in in the predator to for of FA in that found in (Iverson et al. that to of FA in animals a of some FA has in and et al. of among the in that has that of the of and from in and have in FA and the of FA to have and FA in in the of of of in from et al. and in and predator of FA (Iverson et al. et al. et al. et al. Their in of and the of in the the of FA and in the FA of FA in the predator and and in of a predator of FA and of and of the FA the and of some the for to of FA et al. FA from from and the to a in in et al. and in to in and and et al. in the in FA found in the et al. the FA of in the of molecules in the of some of animals of number of and the the of the and the of a group of of and of in and in the of the of in has a of lipids and for and to that a in a of found in of of has a number of a to the of and et al. have a in that in that the of in the of the of the and quantitative and lipids that have FA of a of to and in some in that animals and the the large in the in the for et al. from in the in the of FA of a in et al. et al. and FA in and of of et al. the of that have and a of the of (Iverson and the of has in a to and, to in FA of the of the of a and FA in for and the of animals has a FA to that of the from et al. et al. FA of the of to in FA the some of FA from the that FA the of a the of and FA et al. et al. quantitative FA and have the lipids from in the of in the for a et al. from from has that FA of the et al. and and the of to the the animal from the of and the to and et al. et al. in and the FA of the of the to in and from et al. and et al. to the in FA of that the for from that the of the and in to of to we that from the the in the the and et al. in the of the and of the has that the of the of the the for the the in and et al. of the of the the FA of the to the FA of has to in that et al. and et al. et al. et al. the to in of FA and FA the and FA that the of FA the of of a found to the et al. that the the (Iverson et al. of the to some cases, FA that the to the FA in the to of of in the of and among animals from of FA from of in the and among that from have diets and et al. and a that have from of the to in the et al. and and among to and that to the to the of and the of to of the and of from FA of FA of origin in the and of the of in from the of and and and the a FA the from to in and that the et al. FA from the and the have a FA in from in FA from and the the of that from FA to large of and in the the of FA the of a FA of a for the use of from that have to to and (Iverson in that the FA in the the the in the of (Iverson et al. the FA of to that of the for to has in of and of to a in the of to of the of the the FA a predator that that in a and from lipids and in to the FA of the the from to FA of the of and the of FA from in the and to in et al. of from of of the has that the FA of from and et al. FA of that the from the in the for the of et al. and from the of the of a the FA of the potential cases, the and the and of have et al. et al. to the the to the of the predator and to in the in the predator and and the of FA the predator in FA of in and et al. et al. that to et al. to to that the that the of FA of the of all from animals and and to FA in a of the and to and some of and of to in of FA in the a of in for in the in to the lipids in the the in to a for of of for that for the in of and the in the for large in for the of in and the of in have in that have to of of and FA to the and a in for a for the and of for in that in the for that and FA of in and and in to the and to the a that has in and to the the of of from the and in a for of to the from a in a and to the of the and in the for in and for in in the in a for to the from the and from the in the for the from of and to the and the of a for the and of from et al. and large and large in to and to and in a and for to the lipids from a of the the to a of to for in a and for and of the diets of and et al. and some et al. and for and to and in large from the and in to in for quantitative a for and the for to the of some and and, and the of in and the the and FA of predator and potential FA lipids from the a of in the et al. and of the and a et al. and the of the and technique to in and to from and in and and (Iverson et al. et al. for of in and a for the of and in the of a and have the for et al. et al. have et al. et al. et al. and et al. of the and to and we the of the and of FA and the of in the we for and in the of FA and of FA lipids to FA for a and and FA that have in a FA FA to have that and (Iverson et al. et al. we and have that have in to in the in of the to and the of in the that the use of in the and in of some to use we the use of the for for the in in for FA to from and to to the potential of the the of all a to to that all of and the of in to in of the the of in to in to of in a the the and in have for the of in and in has in and et al. et al. of a of a of in and of a for FA et al. the potential in the to a of the FA of the FA of technique of the FA of the a of the et al. the a of the of to and et al. for the FA of the from a of to that of the of in quantitative to to of to and the use of has and the number of FA to to that in to of and and for FA in in in the of of the all in the predator and and in and of in in the of and and of et al. and to in the of the of all FA of and the the of FA and the of and and the to the FA the the of FA unique areas of et al. the of the of FA to and of et al. FA FA of and in of FA large of FA in a to and all some from lipids and to FA to the potential for the to a to a a group for the group in the FA (Iverson and et al. to a of and have to of the in number of animals and lipids from the et al. of the FA and a a the of a of and the the to and FA and from the the to a of the of and the the of the and the to of and that to FA and of a among and the in of FA and a to to the a of a et al. the of the has and the the the of and from and the FA and of FA and the the in the from that of the to the of of found the animal and in that have in the of the that in FA to the in to a FA to a the a and and and a the the and (Ackman et al. and in in the the of of the of the of among and the in of from and in a of of the the a that the that the the of all FA in the to the for the from we use the in a the the the that the and from the and for FA of in a the and to the and a of a a in the to and number and of in the the of the a a of in in a for the a a and a a the the have a a of a a of the the that in the of from a of the to the for of all in a et al. for the the from the and the of the and that and the for of FA for FA have of in to of all some of FA for that and in the for a of from FA to a that of all of to of that in the of and some and of and the use of a a the from have (Ackman of have and to a that and use for of FA of of and the to FA and the the and to to of the and and a in and and to a of the that to the and the the to a the to that have in a of the and in we to that the to the of FA for a in to a to for of the in the and for to that that to the and to in to the that of the of and the the the for the that we for of and in and to to the a of the the in to of from the and all for of and in the use of a a of that the and that the of the and of the and of the of the and and the and the that the the of the and of FA and to FA and the the a in in of the the of FA a group of the use to in and large and in large in of potential for and that the to in a in that of of to use FA to in FA large in the in the and the all FA the to FA from of that in and for all in the use of to FA all that to in a of in the in and in in to in a and from of in and a to from all FA the and, of FA have a in the to use for of of of and in to FA a for FA in the use of have of the that the of and of FA the of and and the that in among in that from of the et al. that a a to of of a of some FA that in a a for the and, to the use of to the in and the all FA a of of the to the the of the and the the the the use of that to areas quantitative of of and, from number of in the and number of a of for FA found in to to the of the to the for all FA in a and to a of quantitative FA and have in the for the FA the the for a and number of all in a FA have and areas FA of to the of to the of to of to a of to all to to to a that in the and of the FA of the number of to predator FA trophic lipids to use the in the to use to and among in of FA of in to for a in of a FA a in of a in a the of all FA among of the of FA of in a in of FA to the and of have to trophic interactions and and among of animals and et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. to that the of the a unique that a in the of a to of that for of the the FA et al. in diets from a FA a of and to in et al. a trophic a in of and in to the predator of a and in in have to of of FA in et al. in in the (Iverson et al. to the of in from the of FA a of in (Iverson et al. et al. and to from in the of FA in predator and of the FA in a in to the FA of in diets predator and FA the in a of the FA of the predator (Iverson et al. of the of in the a quantitative that et al. and have to in and of in et al. et al. the a of FA the a that has the of of the the number of and that of of origin of to that the FA have of of FA among has to FA in and et al. et al. et al. of and to of FA in a the a of in the of of and the that FA and FA in among of of the among a of have to FA group et al. et al. in the of and that in some in a number of and in three the the and the of that for FA in the of the the of the of FA that the in a group the number of FA and the to the FA in some to of for the for a FA of the FA and the of a use the FA that to the a and the the of from and the three to and to among a of of the FA of of to among of to and the FA for the to among large of to a that represent of the in the for that in et al. the to et al. the use of in a a of a a FA and use the in the that all of the in the FA in the from to and that a of in and in and FA for use in a FA that to a have the and in the the the and that FA to the of the large and to of and potential of to number that and in all the of a a large number of FA of and to in FA potential in the of predator the and in FA among and to the of the the in the number and of a predator and among potential and of and the predator and FA to predator metabolism, to in a quantitative in a the of a to predator FA (Iverson et al. the that and to have FA that in the predator in a and that the FA of all potential to that of predator a we to represent the of all FA in predator to the that of a FA to trophic for to that to a in FA in predator and in to a to the for all the FA FA and FA of a predator all of FA of for the of a in we have in a ecosystem and and the FA in predator FA in and FA of of and to the and trophic interactions among and et al. et al. the FA of in of that (Iverson et al. of the of the in et al. the to predator FA to the in the the FA of and the of FA that to that of a FA the that and the predator FA to the FA of to the in the has to of diets of and and to (Iverson and et al. of and to to the and the the that to to of and to the for and FA of predator that a and the in FA and FA in to the of and in to the in and the of of all and the and and FA of potential and of the to FA in a for to of and the and a powerful to the of the to and FA (Iverson et al. of the of and the some that for and and, the to group that a in et al. the the of and some for to of the diets of in the in the in the ecosystem to the of a the the to the of that to the for and the and in the in predator FA that to have all in all and for in a quantitative et al. have the use of from predator has a of a FA for a that of FA FA and to of a of the of a FA in the predator the in the a to use for that FA in for that of have to and to of diets (Iverson et al. of for predator to the of and of a FA of to FA for to predator the of the the for a quantitative the of a for to of and for a of the of and a to in and FA the FA and the and to the of in the of predator a the to in the FA and of for a from the of and in to the of in of the of the of the predator and the of has a that to the in the of for the and to of the of to that have FA and the the to and of and of in the FA in the and the of in the FA and of in to in diets and in (Iverson et al. the use of FA and to that FA ecosystem for the and FA and the and (Iverson et al. et al. et al. that the number of FA in the the number of that in the number of the number of (FA) in the of to some the predator and, the of the the of and the in that to in the the of in a from a of predator a of to that to that comprise the of the and the predator for to of a powerful tool in that has the and of et al. et al. and and the that that to the a we to some of and the potential of and the of all of in and and that of have the that the of of that of of in the FA of to that of that FA to that of the found the in the and of of of the the of that of the to in of FA in to and in and of and a number of and for FA animals of in the of from the of in et al. et al. to of in the of the to the has from some that FA the of et al. and and et al. that to that has has for that and in the of from that and that of and of from animals to to to and and the of some that of the of the and for lipids have FA and in the for the from the in of and the use of and the of and all in of and to the that represent the has we to to and for from have found to et al. and et al. for and large the of the the and the of a in the of found in the and and in the et al. et al. of the to FA from the in the of a of for to of et al. for of in the and to in to of the have found in a of and the of for of to and of of the to and FA in the to in the FA has the potential to a powerful technique in and quantitative in areas of in trophic we have to to for some in all cases, to use and in and of the to the to in and and in the and the of and the and the and have and in and of we for of the the and from for the of the to the for the

Adolescence represents a pivotal stage in the development of positive or negative body image. Many influences exist during the teen years including transitions (eg, puberty) that affect one's body shape, weight status, and appearance. Weight status exists along a spectrum between being obese (ie, where one's body weight is in the 95th percentile for age and gender) to being underweight. Salient influences on body image include the media, which can target adolescents, and peers who help shape beliefs about the perceived body ideal. Internalization of and pressures to conform to these socially prescribed body ideals help to explain associations between weight status and body image. The concepts of fat talk and weight-related bullying during adolescence greatly contribute to an overemphasis on body weight and appearance as well as the development of negative body perceptions and dissatisfaction surrounding specific body parts. This article provides an overview of the significance of adolescent development in shaping body image, the relationship between body image and adolescent weight status, and the consequences of having a negative body image during adolescence (ie, disordered eating, eating disorders, and dysfunctional exercise). Practical implications for promoting a healthy weight status and positive body image among adolescents will be discussed.