World Wildlife Fund Canada

Free-flowing rivers (FFRs) support diverse, complex and dynamic ecosystems globally, providing important societal and economic services. Infrastructure development threatens the ecosystem processes, biodiversity and services that these rivers support. Here we assess the connectivity status of 12 million kilometres of rivers globally and identify those that remain free-flowing in their entire length. Only 37 per cent of rivers longer than 1,000 kilometres remain free-flowing over their entire length and 23 per cent flow uninterrupted to the ocean. Very long FFRs are largely restricted to remote regions of the Arctic and of the Amazon and Congo basins. In densely populated areas only few very long rivers remain free-flowing, such as the Irrawaddy and Salween. Dams and reservoirs and their up- and downstream propagation of fragmentation and flow regulation are the leading contributors to the loss of river connectivity. By applying a new method to quantify riverine connectivity and map FFRs, we provide a foundation for concerted global and national strategies to maintain or restore them.

Abstract Current global marine protection targets aim to protect 10–30% of marine habitats within the next 3–5 years. However, these targets were adopted without prior assessment of their achievability. Moreover, ability to monitor progress towards such targets has been constrained by a lack of robust data on marine protected areas. Here we present the results of the first explicitly marine-focused, global assessment of protected areas in relation to global marine protection targets. Approximately 2.35 million km2, 0.65% of the world's oceans and 1.6% of the total marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones, are currently protected. Only 0.08% of the world's oceans, and 0.2% of the total marine area under national jurisdiction is no-take. The global distribution of protected areas is both uneven and unrepresentative at multiple scales, and only half of the world's marine protected areas are part of a coherent network. Since 1984 the spatial extent of marine area protected globally has grown at an annual rate of 4.6%, at which even the most modest target is unlikely to be met for at least several decades rather than within the coming decade. These results validate concerns over the relevance and utility of broad conservation targets. However, given the low level of protection for marine ecosystems, a more immediate global concern is the need for a rapid increase in marine protected area coverage. In this case, the process of comparing targets to their expected achievement dates may help to mobilize support for the policy shifts and increased resources needed to improve the current level of marine protection.

Viability analysis of well-selected focal species can complement ecosystem-level conservation planning by revealing thresholds in habitat area and landscape connectivity. Mammalian carnivores are good candidates for focal species because their distributional patterns often strongly reflect regional-scale population processes. We incorporated focal species analysis of four carnivore species, fisher (Martes pennanti), lynx (Lynx canadensis), wolverine (Gulo gulo), and grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), into a regional conservation plan for the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. We developed empirical habitat models for fisher, lynx, and wolverine based on a geographically extensive data set of trapping and sighting records. Predictor variables derived directly from satellite imagery were significantly correlated with carnivore distribution and allowed us to predict distribution in areas lacking detailed vegetation data. Although we lacked similar distributional data for grizzly bear, we predicted bear habitat by adapting and extrapolating previously published, regional-scale habitat models. Predicted habitat for grizzly bear has high overlap with that for wolverine, intermediate overlap with fisher, and low overlap with lynx. High-quality habitats for fisher and lynx, unlike those for wolverine and grizzly bear, are not strongly associated with low levels of human population and roads. Nevertheless, they are naturally fragmented by topography and vegetation gradients and are poorly represented in existing protected areas. Areas with high biological productivity and low human impact are valuable habitat for all four species but are limited in extent. Predicted habitat values for lynx and wolverine are significantly correlated with trapping data from an area outside the extent of the original data set. This supports the use of empirical distribution models as the initial stage in a regional-scale monitoring program. Our results suggest that a comprehensive conservation strategy for carnivores in the region must consider the needs of several species, rather than a single, presumed umbrella species. Coordinated planning across multiple ownerships is necessary to prevent further fragmentation of carnivore habitat, especially in the U.S.–Canada border region. For reprints of this Invited Feature, see footnote 1, p. 945.

BACKGROUND: Gender-based violence (GBV) represents a major cause of psychological morbidity worldwide, and particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Although there are effective treatments for common mental disorders associated with GBV, they typically require lengthy treatment programs that may limit scaling up in LMICs. The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of a new 5-session behavioural treatment called Problem Management Plus (PM+) that lay community workers can be taught to deliver. METHODS AND FINDINGS: In this single-blind, parallel, randomised controlled trial, adult women who had experienced GBV were identified through community screening for psychological distress and impaired functioning in Nairobi, Kenya. Participants were randomly allocated in a 1:1 ratio either to PM+ delivered in the community by lay community health workers provided with 8 days of training or to facility-based enhanced usual care (EUC) provided by community nurses. Participants were aware of treatment allocation, but research assessors were blinded. The primary outcome was psychological distress as measured by the total score on the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) assessed at 3 months after treatment. Secondary outcomes were impaired functioning (measured by the WHO Disability Adjustment Schedule [WHODAS]), symptoms of posttraumatic stress (measured by the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist [PCL]), personally identified problems (measured by Psychological Outcome Profiles [PSYCHLOPS]), stressful life events (measured by the Life Events Checklist [LEC]), and health service utilisation. Between 15 April 2015 and 20 August 2015, 1,393 women were screened for eligibility on the basis of psychological distress and impaired functioning. Of these, 518 women (37%) screened positive, of whom 421 (81%) were women who had experienced GBV. Of these 421 women, 209 were assigned to PM+ and 212 to EUC. Follow-up assessments were completed on 16 January 2016. The primary analysis was intention to treat and included 53 women in PM+ (25%) and 49 women in EUC (23%) lost to follow-up. The difference between PM+ and EUC in the change from baseline to 3 months on the GHQ-12 was 3.33 (95% CI 1.86-4.79, P = 0.001) in favour of PM+. In terms of secondary outcomes, for WHODAS the difference between PM+ and EUC in the change from baseline to 3-month follow-up was 1.96 (95% CI 0.21-3.71, P = 0.03), for PCL it was 3.95 (95% CI 0.06-7.83, P = 0.05), and for PSYCHLOPS it was 2.15 (95% CI 0.98-3.32, P = 0.001), all in favour of PM+. These estimated differences correspond to moderate effect sizes in favour of PM+ for GHQ-12 score (0.57, 95% CI 0.32-0.83) and PSYCHLOPS (0.67, 95% CI 0.31-1.03), and small effect sizes for WHODAS (0.26, 95% CI 0.02-0.50) and PCL (0.21, 95% CI 0.00-0.41). Twelve adverse events were reported, all of which were suicidal risks detected during screening. No adverse events were attributable to the interventions or the trial. Limitations of the study include no long-term follow-up, reliance on self-report rather than structured interview data, and lack of an attention control condition. CONCLUSIONS: Among a community sample of women in urban Kenya with a history of GBV, a brief, lay-administered behavioural intervention, compared with EUC, resulted in moderate reductions in psychological distress at 3-month follow-up. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12614001291673.

The impacts of climate change and the socioecological challenges they present are ubiquitous and increasingly severe. Practical efforts to operationalize climate-responsive design and management in the global network of marine protected areas (MPAs) are required to ensure long-term effectiveness for safeguarding marine biodiversity and ecosystem services. Here, we review progress in integrating climate change adaptation into MPA design and management and provide eight recommendations to expedite this process. Climate-smart management objectives should become the default for all protected areas, and made into an explicit international policy target. Furthermore, incentives to use more dynamic management tools would increase the climate change responsiveness of the MPA network as a whole. Given ongoing negotiations on international conservation targets, now is the ideal time to proactively reform management of the global seascape for the dynamic climate-biodiversity reality.

Abstract We identify policies that would provide a solid foundation in key international negotiations to ensure that primary forests persist into the 21st Century. A novel compilation of primary forest cover and other data revealed that protection of primary forests is a matter of global concern being equally distributed between developed and developing countries. Almost all (98%) of primary forest is found within 25 countries with around half in five developed ones (USA, Canada, Russia, Australia, and NZ). Only ∼22% of primary forest is found in IUCN Protected Areas Categories I–VI, which is approximately 5% of preagriculture natural forest cover. Rates of deforestation and forest degradation are rapid and extensive, and the long‐term integrity of primary forest cannot be assumed. We recommend four new actions that could be included in climate change, biodiversity, and sustainable development negotiations: (1) recognize primary forests as a matter of global concern within international negotiations; (2) incorporate primary forests into environmental accounting; (3) prioritize the principle of avoided loss; and (4) universally accept the important role of indigenous and community conserved areas. In the absence of specific policies for primary forest protection, their unique biodiversity values and ecosystem services will continue to erode.

The extent to which pollution from tar sands industrial activities in northeastern Alberta, Canada affects ecosystem and human health is a matter of growing concern that is exacerbated by uncertainty.In this paper we determine whether physical and ecological changes that result from tar sands industrial activities are detectable.We analyze a diverse set of environmental data on water and sediment chemistry, contaminants in wildlife, air emissions, pollution incidents, traditional ecological observations, human health, and landscape changes from the Athabasca Tar Sands region, Canada.Increases in contaminants in water, sediment, and fishes downstream of industrial sources; significant air emissions and major pollution incidents; and the loss of 65,040 ha of boreal ecosystems are documented.Present levels of some contaminants pose an ecosystem or human health risk.The effects of these pollutants on ecosystem and public health deserve immediate and systematic study.Projected tripling of tar sands activities over the next decade may result in unacceptably large and unforeseen impacts to biodiversity, ecosystem function, and public health.The attention of the world's scientific community is urgently needed.

Simple, effective protocols for cryopreserving milt of five Brazilian migratory characids (Brycon orbignyanus, Prochilodus lineatus, Piaractus mesopotamicus, Salminus maxillosus and Leporinus elongatus) and one Brazilian migratory catfish (Pseudoplatystoma corruscans) are described. Milt was frozen and stored in dry shippers immediately after collection, making the procedure practical for use in the field. A diluent of 5% glucose, 10% dimethyl sulphoxide and 10% egg yolk was effective for all of the characid species, and a diluent of 10% methanol and 15% powdered milk was effective for P. corruscans. Milt was thawed in an ambient temperature water bath (28–30° C). Activation of thawed milt was effective with either saline (0·9 or 0·45% NaCl) or bicarbonate (1% NaHCO3). Fertilization rates with frozen milt varied between 49 and 300% of the control. Application of the technology for increasing genetic diversity in hatchery programmes for enhancement, mitigation or conservation breeding is discussed, as is its application in aquaculture. Inappropriate use of the technology can threaten wild biodiversity and appropriate legislation and education may be required for its responsible use.

‘Nature and its vital contributions to people, which together embody biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are deteriorating worldwide’ [1]. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is intended to ensure conservation of biodiversity, its wise use, and sharing of benefits from use of genetic resources. Through it, the Strategic Plan (SP) for Biodiversity 2011–2020 was created to make progress toward a vision of humanity ‘Living in Harmony with Nature’ by 2050 [2]. When that vision is realized, biodiversity will be valued, conserved, restored, and wisely used, so it can maintain ecosystem services and sustain a healthy planet, delivering benefits essential for all humans (2050 Vision). The SP contains 20 global targets (the Aichi Targets) and applies to other nature-oriented UN Conventions. Related to this, in 2015, the UN created the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), an overarching plan for people, planet, and prosperity designed to achieve a multi-faceted vision, which includes living in harmony with nature. The SDGs stressed international cooperation, referenced biodiversity and climate throughout, and reaffirmed Rio Principle 7, which states that countries have common but differentiated responsibilities for the health of the ‘earth ecosystem.’ [3]. Confronted with the global crisis facing nature, the Parties to the CBD will meet in Kunming, China in October 2020. They have called for assistance in developing realistic baselines and frameworks that will support ambitious and measurable targets for a Post-2020 SP relevant to the SDGs that will make progress toward the 2050 Vision [4]. We offer this response. Three Global Conditions for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use (3Cs) is an implementation framework suitable for use in the Post-2020 SP. It follows the well-known drivers-state-pressure-response approach for addressing biodiversity conservation on land [5]. A compatible marine approach is under development. The 3Cs framework evaluates land-use drivers and human pressures to establish a baseline state of three broad terrestrial conditions: Cities and Farms cover 18% of land (C1), shared lands 56% (C2), and large wild areas 26% (C3). It maps all but Antarctica (Fig. 1) and enables development of suites of conservation responses and production practices appropriate for each condition that are clustered on a continuum from those appropriate to the most heavily impacted areas to those best suited to the wildest areas remaining on Earth. These include: C1: Increase conservation efforts to secure endangered species and protect all remaining primary ecosystem fragments. Mainstream sustainable practices such as protecting good farmland, practicing productive regenerative agriculture, and keeping nitrogen out of freshwater. Maintain pollinators and increase ecological restoration. ‘Green’ cities to reduce carbon emissions, prevent urban sprawl, and provide access to nature for urban dwellers’ health and well-being. C2: Establish ‘ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas (PAs)’ while increasing coverage of key biodiversity areas (KBAs); restore and maintain ecological processes and viable populations of native species (ensure area protected is in the range of 25%–75% per ecoregion) [6]. Across landscapes integrate sustainable natural resource extraction and activities such as tourism, grazing, and use of wildlife (where appropriate and sustainable) with indigenous knowledge and well-managed, equitable, and properly funded PA networks. Map of the Three Global Conditions, with their relative global areas illustrated in bar at bottom (Supplemental Methods). Eckert IV projection. Map of the Three Global Conditions, with their relative global areas illustrated in bar at bottom (Supplemental Methods). Eckert IV projection. The three global conditions, summary statistics (computations and sources in Supplementary Methods). The three global conditions, summary statistics (computations and sources in Supplementary Methods). C3: Retain overall ecological integrity and associated global processes such as carbon storage and rainfall generation, fluvial flows, and large migrations; prevent further fragmentation allowing only rare nodes of intense industrial development enveloped in a largely wild matrix. Remove and restore anomalies. Establish large PAs and indigenous and community conserved areas. Secure indigenous knowledge and livelihoods. Most of these responses and practices are already found in the current Aichi Targets (see Supplementary Text in Supplementary Materials). Some actions identified for one condition may be applicable in another. In addition, ecological connectivity should be secured across all three conditions for resident and migratory species and for resilience to climate change. Intended for simultaneous use, these conservation responses and sustainable practices form a coherent basis for common national actions and international cooperation for ambitious efforts to protect the ‘earth ecosystem.’ Countries with similar conditions have similar responsibilities and options for domestic action. Developed nations can also support efforts elsewhere, especially when their trade footprints cause biodiversity loss in other countries. To make the map (Fig. 1), we combined global maps of intensive human land uses [7] and eight human-caused pressures on land determined by the Human Footprint v 2.0 [8]. A break point of half the land transformed by cities, cultivation, and intensive grazing was set for the boundary between C1 and C2. For the boundary between C2, which has both significant untransformed natural conditions and substantial land uses, and C3, which is still predominantly natural with light land use, we used a human footprint pressure of <4 out of 50 and intensive land use covering <0.5% of regional landscape hexagons of ∼100 sq. km. (details in Supplementary Methods in Supplementary Materials). Within each of the conditions might be found small elements of other conditions. Conservation and human-use values vary by condition. The relative distribution of human population, above- and below-ground carbon, existing PAs, distribution of vertebrates and threatened vertebrates, KBAs, indigenous interests in land, and food calories produced are summarized by condition in Table 1 (source data and analysis methods described in Supplementary Materials). The concentration of people, food production, and threatened vertebrates in highly productive C1, the abundance of KBAs and PAs that could be interconnected compatibly with natural resource extraction in C2, and the prevalence of carbon-rich soils and forests, small human populations, and indigenous management in C3 exemplify why it is useful to sort conservation strategies by varied societal and natural conditions. We acknowledge that these boundaries are fuzzy and that national maps should be improved through calibration and expert ground-truthing. Nevertheless, these generalizations hold true enough to be useful for developing regional and global-scale strategies. The Post-2020 SP will be negotiated politically, not by scientists. The 3Cs are scientifically grounded yet easy for a non-scientist to visualize and understand. Maps of the 3Cs can be viewed by decision-makers on their hand-held devices where they can compare their conditions with those of other countries (global, regional, and national maps are at naturebeyond2020.com). The maps can be updated and monitored over time. The 3Cs provide a coherent framework for countries to commit to global goals through realistic measures suitable for their current national conditions. It provides a basis for common but differentiated responsibilities for international cooperation to protect the earth ecosystem that can also serve as a guide for the participation of non-state actors. If implemented simultaneously, the strategies and actions identified by the 3Cs would be transformational steps toward securing biodiversity and realizing the 2050 Vision. We gratefully acknowledge many people around the world who have participated in consultations conducted by the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Beyond the Aichi Targets Task Force. Their insights and comments helped to shape this paper. This work was supported by Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation grant #7544 to the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, sponsor of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Beyond the Aichi Targets Task Force. Conflict of interest statement. None declared.

Abstract If marine environments are to be systematically protected from the adverse effects of human activities, then identification of the types of marine habitats and the communities they contain, and delineation of their boundaries utilizing a consistent classification is required. Human impacts on defined communities can then be assessed, the ‘health’ of these communities can be monitored, and marine protected areas can be designated as appropriate. Schemes to classify habitats at local and regional scales, according to their geophysical properties, may identify different factors as determinants, and/or use them in different sequences in a hierarchical classification. We examined the reasons for these differences in local and regional applications of a global concept, and argue that a common set of factors could be applied in a defined and defensible sequence to produce a common hierarchy of habitat types among geographic regions. We show how simple mapping and GIS techniques, based on readily available data, can lead to the identification of representative habitat types over broad geographic regions. We applied a geophysical framework first to the entire Canadian coastline and second to the Scotian Shelf of Atlantic Canada to establish broad scale marine natural regions and ‘seascapes’, respectively. This ecosystem level approach — which defines representative habitat types — is a fundamental prerequisite for many purposes. It can form the basis for further analyses including: definition of community types from habitat — community relationships; evaluation of the potential roles of focal species in marine conservation; evaluation of candidate marine protected areas; definition of unaffected reference areas against which the effects of human activities can be gauged; guidance for water quality monitoring studies; management of marine resources. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Canada has extensive forests and peatlands that play key roles in global carbon cycle. Canadian soils and peatlands are assumed to store approximately 20% of the world’s soil carbon stock. However, the spatial and vertical distributions of the soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration in Canada have not been systematically investigated. SOC concentration, expressed in g C kg−1 soil, affects the chemical and physical properties of the soil, such as water infiltration ability, moisture holding capacity, nutrient availability, and the biological activity of microorganisms. In this study, we tested a three dimensional (3D) machine learning approach and 40 spatial predictors derived from 20 years of optical and microwave satellite observations to estimate the spatial and vertical distributions of SOC concentration in Canada in six depth intervals up to 1 m. A quantile regression forest method was used to build an uncertainty map showing 80% of prediction intervals. Results showed that a random forest model associated with 25 covariates was successful in capturing 83% of spatial and vertical SOC variation over the country. Soil depth was the most important covariate to predict SOC concentration, followed by surface temperature and elevation. The SOC concentration in forested areas was highest in the top layers (0–5 cm), but soils located in peatlands showed higher C concentration in all soil depths. Among the terrestrial ecozones of Canada, Pacific Maritime and the Hudson Plain mostly covered by forest trees and peatlands, respectively, show highest SOC concentration, while the lowest concentration are observed in the Prairies and Mixed Wood Plain ecosystems that are the agricultural areas of the country. This study provides a deeper understanding of the major factors controlling SOC concentration in Canada and shows potential areas with high carbon reserves, which are crucial in view of the ongoing climate change. In addition, the presented methodological framework has great potential to be used in future soil carbon storage inventories using satellite observations. Mapping SOC concentration and associated uncertainties in Canada are fundamental to detect trends of gains or losses in SOC linked to recent and future national or global policy decisions related to soil quality and carbon sequestration.

Understanding and reducing the incidence of accidental bycatch, particularly for vulnerable species such as sharks, is a major challenge for contemporary fisheries management. Here we establish integrated nested Laplace approximations (INLA) and stochastic partial differential equations (SPDE) as two powerful tools for modelling patterns of bycatch through time and space. These novel, computationally fast approaches are applied to fit zero-inflated hierarchical spatiotemporal models to Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) bycatch data from the Baffin Bay Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) gillnet fishery. Results indicate that Greenland shark bycatch is clustered in space and time, varies significantly from year to year, and there are both tractable factors (number of gillnet panels, total Greenland halibut catch) and physical features (bathymetry) leading to the high incidence of Greenland shark bycatch. Bycatch risk could be reduced by limiting access to spatiotemporal hotspots or by establishing a maximum number of panels per haul. Our method explicitly models the spatiotemporal correlation structure inherent in bycatch data at a very reasonable computational cost, such that the forecasting of bycatch patterns and simulating conservation strategies becomes more accessible.

The collapse of Atlantic cod ( Gadus morhua L., 1758) in the early 1990s, perhaps the greatest numerical loss of a Canadian vertebrate (1.5–2.5 billion reproductive individuals), is one from which the species has yet to recover. Populations, or stocks, are at or well below their conservation reference points. The lack of recovery has been linked to ongoing fishing mortality (targeted, bycatch), changes to life history (reductions in age and size at maturity, truncations in age and size structure), and increased natural mortality. Emergent and demographic Allee effects, coupled with altered interspecific interactions, render questionable the presumption that the recovery of heavily depleted populations can be reliably forecasted by population dynamical behaviour during decline. Contrary to international commitments and inconsistent with fishery rebuilding plans elsewhere, cod recovery plans exclude target and limit reference points, recovery timelines, and harvest control rules. We suggest that the long-term biodiversity, social, and economic benefits associated with cod recovery can be realised by novel changes, including quantitatively responsible recovery plans based on science-determined reference points, new or revised legislation, integrated management strategies, strengthened sustainable seafood certification practices, expansion of marine spatial planning and protected areas, and novel financial incentives for investment in long-term, sustainable fisheries.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) are developing a joint methodology for estimating the national and global work-related burden of disease and injury (WHO/ILO joint methodology), with contributions from a large network of experts. In this paper, we present the protocol for two systematic reviews of parameters for estimating the number of deaths and disability-adjusted life years from melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer (or keratinocyte carcinoma) from occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation, to inform the development of the WHO/ILO joint methodology. OBJECTIVES: We aim to systematically review studies on occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation (Systematic Review 1) and systematically review and meta-analyse estimates of the effect of occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation on melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer (Systematic Review 2), applying the Navigation Guide systematic review methodology as an organizing framework and conducting both systematic reviews in tandem and in a harmonized way. DATA SOURCES: Separately for Systematic Reviews 1 and 2, we will search electronic academic databases for potentially relevant records from published and unpublished studies, including Ovid Medline, PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science. We will also search electronic grey literature databases, Internet search engines and organizational websites; hand-search reference list of previous systematic reviews and included study records and consult additional experts. STUDY ELIGIBILITY AND CRITERIA: We will include working-age (≥15 years) workers in the formal and informal economy in any WHO and/or ILO Member State, but exclude children (<15 years) and unpaid domestic workers. For Systematic Review 1, we will include quantitative studies on the prevalence of relevant levels of occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation (i.e. <0.33 SED/d and ≥0.33 SED/d) and of the total working time spent outdoors, stratified by country, sex, age and industrial sector or occupation, in the years 1960 to 2018. For Systematic Review 2, we will include randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, case-control studies and other non-randomized intervention studies with an estimate of the effect of any occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation (i.e., ≥0.33 SED/d) on the prevalence of, incidence of or mortality due to melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer, compared with the theoretical minimum risk exposure level (i.e. <0.33 SED/d). STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS: At least two review authors will independently screen titles and abstracts against the eligibility criteria at a first stage and full texts of potentially eligible records at a second stage, followed by extraction of data from qualifying studies. At least two review authors will assess the risk of bias and the quality of evidence, using the most suited tools currently available. For Systematic Review 2, if feasible, we will combine relative risks using meta-analysis. We will report results using the guidelines for accurate and transparent health estimates reporting (GATHER) for Systematic Review 1 and the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines (PRISMA) for Systematic Review 2. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42018094817.

Abstract Anthropogenic global warming is occurring more rapidly in the Arctic than elsewhere, and has already caused significant negative effects on sea ice‐dependent species such as polar bears. Although observed effects have thus far been gradual, the large amount of annual variation in the climate system may cause habitat changes in individual years that exceed the long‐term trend. Such years may be below critical thresholds necessary for feeding and result in unprecedented reductions in survival, reproduction, and abundance in some populations. Here, in anticipation of sudden negative population‐level effects, we provide an overview of proactive conservation and management options. Preplanning, consultation, and coordination of management responses will be necessary to reduce the risks to human safety and other effects of catastrophic declines in habitat. Advance consideration of the costs, legality, logistical difficulties, likelihood of success, and invasiveness of potential responses will be critical to minimizing short‐term negative effects while laying the groundwork for longer‐term conservation objectives.

Spawning salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) are important resources for terrestrial ecosystems and often shape the ecological strategies of organisms with which they co-evolve. Gray wolves (Canis lupus), primarily predators of ungulates, are sympatric with salmon over large areas, but the relationship between the two remains poorly understood. We report here observations of direct and indirect evidence of salmon predation by wolves in several watersheds of coastal British Columbia and in detail report on the foraging behaviour of four wolves at one river during September and October 2001. Wolves oriented themselves upstream during detection and pursuit of salmon. The pooled mean capture rate was 21.5 salmon/h and mean efficiency (successes/attempt) was 39.4%. In most cases, wolves consumed only heads of salmon, perhaps for nutritional reasons or parasite avoidance. Preying on salmon may be adaptive, as this nutritious and spatially constrained resource imposes lower risks of injury compared with hunting large mammals. We infer from capture rates and efficiencies, as well as stereotypical hunting and feeding behaviour, a history of salmon predation by wolves and, as a corollary, a broad distribution of this foraging ecology where wolves and salmon still co-exist.

Abstract Terrestrial ecosystems of Canada store a large amount of organic carbon (C) in soils, peats and plant materials, yet little is known about the C stock size and distributions, both spatially and in various C pools. As temperature rises, C is becoming available for disturbance, decomposition and eventual release into the atmosphere, which makes the quantification of C stocks in terrestrial ecosystems of Canada of high interest for the assessment of climate change impacts and conservation efforts. We used a large number of field measurements, multisource satellite, climate and topographic data and a machine learning algorithm to produce the first wall‐to‐wall estimates of C stocks and uncertainties in plants and soils of Canada at 250 m spatial resolution. Our findings show that above and belowground live biomass and detritus store a total of 21.1 Pg of carbon (Pg C). Whereas the Canadian soils store 306 (±147, 90% confidence interval) Pg organic C in the top 1 m, 98 Pg C of which are stored in peatlands, confirming that the soil organic C dominates terrestrial carbon stocks in Canada. We also find previously under‐reported large soil organic C stocks in forested peatlands on the boreal shields of Canada. Given that Canada is warming twice the global average rate and Canadian soils store approximately 20.4% of world soil C stocks in top 1 m, initiatives to understand their vulnerabilities to climate change and disturbance are indispensable not only for Canada but also for the global C cycle.

The globally endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia is sparsely distributed throughout the rugged mountains in Asia. Its habit of preying on livestock poses a main challenge to management. In the remote Phu valley in northern Nepal, we obtained reliable information on livestock losses and estimated predator abundance and diet composition from DNA analysis and prey remains in scats. The annual diet consisted of 42% livestock. Among the wild prey, bharal (blue sheep/naur) Pseudois nayaur was by far the most common species (92%). Two independent abundance estimates suggested that there were six snow leopards in the valley during the course of our study. On average, each snow leopard killed about one livestock individual and two bharal per month. Predation loss of livestock estimated from prey remains in scats was 3.9%, which was in concordance with village records (4.0%). From a total count of bharal, the only large natural prey in the area and occurring at a density of 8.4 animals/km 2 or about half the density of livestock, snow leopards were estimated to harvest 15.1% of the population annually. This predation rate approaches the natural, inherent recruitment rate of this species; in Phu the proportion of kids was estimated at 18.4%. High livestock losses have created a hostile attitude against the snow leopard and mitigation measures are needed. Among innovative management schemes now being implemented throughout the species' range, compensation and insurance programmes coupled with other incentive measures are encouraged, rather than measures to reduce the snow leopard's access to livestock. In areas like the Phu valley, where the natural prey base consists mainly of one ungulate species that is already heavily preyed upon, the latter approach, if implemented, will lead to increased predation on this prey, which over time may suppress numbers of both prey and predator.

The ocean provides food, economic activity, and cultural value for a large proportion of humanity. Our knowledge of marine ecosystems lags behind that of terrestrial ecosystems, limiting effective protection of marine resources. We describe the outcome of 2 workshops in 2011 and 2012 to establish a list of important questions, which, if answered, would substantially improve our ability to conserve and manage the world's marine resources. Participants included individuals from academia, government, and nongovernment organizations with broad experience across disciplines, marine ecosystems, and countries that vary in levels of development. Contributors from the fields of science, conservation, industry, and government submitted questions to our workshops, which we distilled into a list of priority research questions. Through this process, we identified 71 key questions. We grouped these into 8 subject categories, each pertaining to a broad component of marine conservation: fisheries, climate change, other anthropogenic threats, ecosystems, marine citizenship, policy, societal and cultural considerations, and scientific enterprise. Our questions address many issues that are specific to marine conservation, and will serve as a road map to funders and researchers to develop programs that can greatly benefit marine conservation.

Present biodiversity conservation programmes in the remaining extensive forest blocks of the humid trop­ics are failing to achieve outcomes that will be viable in the medium to long term. Too much emphasis is given to what we term 'grand design'-ambitious and idealistic plans for conservation. Such plans im­plicitly oppose or restrict development and often attempt to block it by speculatively establishing paper parks. Insufficient recognition is given to the inevitable long term pressures for conversion to other land uses and to the weakness of local constituencies for conservation. Conservation institutions must build their capacity to engage with the process of change. They must constantly adapt to deal with a continuously unfolding set of challenges, opportunities and changing societal needs. This can be achieved by long term on-the-ground engagement and 'muddling through'. The range of conservation options must be enlarged to give more attention to biodiversity in managed landscapes and to mosaics composed of areas with dif­fering intensities of use. The challenge is to build the human capacity and institutions to achieve this.