Zoological Survey of India

The current water crisis necessitates the development of new materials for wastewater treatment. A variety of nanomaterials are continuously being investigated for their potential as adsorbents for environmental remediation. Researchers intend to develop a low-cost, simple, and sustainable material that can cater to removal of pollutants. Biochar derived from biowaste is a potential candidate for the existing problem of water pollution. The review focuses on the various aspects of biochar, such as its sources, preparation methods, mechanism, applications for wastewater treatment, and its regeneration. Compared with other adsorbents, biochar is considered as an environmentally friendly, sustainable, and cost-effective substitute for waste management, climate protection, soil improvement, wastewater treatment, etc. The special properties of biochar such as porosity, surface area, surface charge, and functional groups can be easily modified by various chemical methods, resulting in improved adsorption properties. Therefore, in view of the increasing environmental pollution and the problems encountered by researchers in treating pollutants, biochar is of great importance. This review also highlights the challenges and prospective areas that can be explored and studied in more detail in the future.

Abstract In studying the life and characters of the animals inhabiting the torrential streams of India and elsewhere, one thing has become quite clear to me—that evolution is no more than the adaptation of organisms to environment. “Adaptation” signifies correlation of an animal with its habitat, and therefore the study of animal organisation, however detailed, cannot by itself lead to the proper understanding of this phenomenon. Environment with its unlimited gradations plays an important part in the making and re-making of the characters, and sometimes the resultant forms are of such totally different types that genetic relations can hardly be discerned (vide infra, pp. 190, 237, 246). This fine adjustment of an organism to the external conditions of its existence is the result of a series of gradual changes induced by the environment.

COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in 16,114,449 cases with 646,641 deaths from the 217 countries, or territories as on July 27th 2020. Due to multifaceted issues and challenges in the implementation of the safety and preventive measures, inconsistent coordination between societies-governments and most importantly lack of specific vaccine to SARS-CoV-2, the spread of the virus that initially emerged at Wuhan is still uprising after taking a heavy toll on human life. In the present study, we mapped immunogenic epitopes present on the four structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and we designed a multi-epitope peptide based vaccine that, demonstrated a high immunogenic response with a vast application on world's human population. On codon optimization and in-silico cloning, we found that candidate vaccine showed high expression in E. coli and immune simulation resulted in inducing a high level of both B-cell and T-cell mediated immunity. The results predicted that exposure of vaccine by administrating three injections significantly subsidized the antigen growth in the system. The proposed candidate vaccine found promising by yielding desired results and hence, should be validated by practical experimentations for its functioning and efficacy to neutralize SARS-CoV-2.

Sharks and rays are key functional components of coral reef ecosystems, yet many populations of a few species exhibit signs of depletion and local extinctions. The question is whether these declines forewarn of a global extinction crisis. We use IUCN Red List to quantify the status, trajectory, and threats to all coral reef sharks and rays worldwide. Here, we show that nearly two-thirds (59%) of the 134 coral-reef associated shark and ray species are threatened with extinction. Alongside marine mammals, sharks and rays are among the most threatened groups found on coral reefs. Overfishing is the main cause of elevated extinction risk, compounded by climate change and habitat degradation. Risk is greatest for species that are larger-bodied (less resilient and higher trophic level), widely distributed across several national jurisdictions (subject to a patchwork of management), and in nations with greater fishing pressure and weaker governance. Population declines have occurred over more than half a century, with greatest declines prior to 2005. Immediate action through local protections, combined with broad-scale fisheries management and Marine Protected Areas, is required to avoid extinctions and the loss of critical ecosystem function condemning reefs to a loss of shark and ray biodiversity and ecosystem services, limiting livelihoods and food security.

Recent advances in molecular technology have revolutionized research on all aspects of the biology of organisms, including ciliates, and created unprecedented opportunities for pursuing a more integrative approach to investigations of biodiversity. However, this goal is complicated by large gaps and inconsistencies that still exist in the foundation of basic information about biodiversity of ciliates. The present paper reviews issues relating to the taxonomy of ciliates and presents specific recommendations for best practice in the observation and documentation of their biodiversity. This effort stems from a workshop that explored ways to implement six Grand Challenges proposed by the International Research Coordination Network for Biodiversity of Ciliates (IRCN-BC). As part of its commitment to strengthening the knowledge base that supports research on biodiversity of ciliates, the IRCN-BC proposes to populate The Ciliate Guide, an online database, with biodiversity-related data and metadata to create a resource that will facilitate accurate taxonomic identifications and promote sharing of data.

The Indian Ocean (IO) extends over 30% of the global ocean area and is rimmed by 36 littoral and 11 hinterland nations sustaining about 30% of the world's population. The landlocked character of the ocean along its northern boundary and the resultant seasonally reversing wind and sea surface circulation patterns are features unique to the IO. The IO also accounts for 30% of the global coral reef cover, 40,000 km² of mangroves,some of the world's largest estuaries, and 9 large marine ecosystems. Numerous expeditions and institutional efforts in the last two centuries have contributed greatly to our knowledge of coastal and marine biodiversity within the IO. The current inventory, as seen from the Ocean Biogeographic Information System, stands at 34,989 species, but the status of knowledge is not uniform among countries. Lack of human, institutional, and technical capabilities in some IO countries is the main cause for the heterogeneous level of growth in our understanding of the biodiversity of the IO. The gaps in knowledge extend to several smaller taxa and to large parts of the shelf and deep-sea ecosystems, including seamounts. Habitat loss, uncontrolled developmental activities in the coastal zone, over extraction of resources, and coastal pollution are serious constraints on maintenance of highly diverse biota, especially in countries like those of the IO, where environmental regulations are weak.

Soil is a complex structure and contains mainly five major components i.e. mineral matter, water, air, organic matter and living organisms. The quantity of these components in the soil does not remain the same but varies with the locality. Soil possesses not only a nucleus position for existence of living being but also ensures their future existence. Therefore, it is essential to make an adequate land management to maintain the quality of soil in both rural and urban soil. The presence of different kinds of heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Mn, Bi and Zn etc. in trace or in minimum level is a natural phenomenon but their enhanced level is an indicator of the degree of pollution load in that specific area. The precise knowledge of these kinds of heavy metals, their forms and their dependence on soil provides a genuine base for soil management. The heavy metals have potent cumulative properties and toxicity due to which they have a potential hazardous effect not only on crop plants but also on human health. The metal contaminants can be reduced by immobilization of contaminants using macrophytes and also by using genetically engineered microorganisms.

A checklist of the dragonflies and damselflies occurring in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India (including Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka is presented. In total 588 (including 559 full species) taxa are known to occur in the region of which 251 taxa (species subspecies) are single country endemics. Recent taxonomic changes relevant to the area are summarized. Sixteen taxa are synonymized and a checklist of all synonyms established since 1950 is provided. Information is given on available larval descriptions including a list of genera present in the region for which no larvae have yet been described. Numerous species occurring in the area are still poorly known and a list of genera for which a revision is urgently needed is provided. The following new synonyms are established: Calicnemia sudhaae Mitra, 1994 = Calicnemia imitans Lieftinck, 1948 syn. nov.; Ceriagrion fallax cerinomelas Lieftinck, 1927 = Ceriagrion fallax Ris, 1914 syn. nov.; Ceriagrion fallax pendleburyi Laidlaw, 1931 = Ceriagrion fallax Ris, 1914 syn. nov.; Coenagrion kashmirus Chowdhary Das, 1975 = Ischnura forcipata Morton, 1907 syn. nov.; Enallagma insula Fraser, 1920 = Aciagrion occidentale Laidlaw, 1919 syn. nov.; Himalagrion pithoragarhicum Sahni, 1964 = Ceriagrion fallax Ris, 1914 syn. nov.; Ischnura bhimtalensis Sahni, 1965 = Ischnura rubilio Selys, 1876 syn. nov.; Onychargia indica Sahni, 1964 = Paracercion calamorum (Ris, 1916) syn. nov.; Anaciaeschna kashmirense Singh Baijal, 1954 = Anaciaeschna martini (Selys, 1897) syn. nov.; Cyclogomphus vesiculosus Selys, 1854 = Cyclogomphus ypsilon Selys, 1954 syn. nov.; Chlorogomphus brittoi Navás, 1934 = Chlorogomphus xanthoptera (Fraser, 1919) syn. nov.; Hylaeothemis indica Fraser, 1946 = Hylaeothemis apicalis Fraser, 1924 syn. nov.; Sympetrum durum Bartenef, 1916 = Sympetrum striolatum commixtum Selys, 1884 syn. nov.; Sympetrum himalayanum Navás, 1934 = Sympetrum hypomelas (Selys, 1884) syn. nov.; Sympetrum haematoneura Fraser, 1924 = Sympetrum speciosum Oguma, 1915 syn. nov.; Sympetrum speciosum taiwanum Asahina, 1951 = Sympetrum speciosum Oguma, 1915 syn. nov. In addition, Periaeschna lebasi Navás, 1930 is regarded a nomen nudum. The following new combinations are proposed: Onychogomphus acinaces Laidlaw, 1922 is transferred to the genus Melligomphus Chao, 1990 resulting in Melligomphus acinaces (Laidlaw, 1922) comb. nov. Onychogomphus saundersii Selys, 1854 is transferred to the genus Nychogomphus Carle, 1986 resulting in Nychogomphus saundersii (Selys, 1854) comb. nov..

Thrips are one of the major sucking pest and vector of plant viruses causing huge economic loss in agriculture. The accurate identification of thrips is crucial for effective pest management strategies. However, morphology based identification has limitations and warrants integration of molecular data. We attempted the largest DNA barcoding initiative on 370 sequences of 89 thrips morphospecies including 104 novel sequences from 39 morphospecies, including the type specimens of four species. The results of multiple species delimitation methods (BIN, ABGD, GMYC and bPTP) were consistent for 73 species (82%) with their morphological identifications. A total of 107 molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs) was recovered for 89 morphospecies by superimposing multiple methods and applying a three level nomenclature system. We detected more than one MOTU in 14 morphospecies indicating to have cryptic diversity including, two major vector species (Frankliniella schultzei and Thrips palmi). However, four morphospecies (Thrips moundi, Thrips carthami, Haplothrips andersi and Haplothrips gowdeyi) showed low genetic distances between them with overlapping in barcode gap that requires further analysis with multiple molecular markers and more specimens from wide geographical areas for better taxonomic judgment. We also presented the advantage of simultaneous use of multiple delimitation methods for detection and identification of cryptic species.

Prior to this study, complete mitochondrial genomes from Order Thysanoptera were restricted to a single family, the Thripidae, resulting in a biased view of their evolution. Here we present the sequences for the mitochondrial genomes of four additional thrips species, adding three extra families and an additional subfamily, thus greatly improving taxonomic coverage. Thrips mitochondrial genomes are marked by high rates of gene rearrangement, duplications of the control region and tRNA mutations. Derived features of mitochondrial tRNAs in thrips include gene duplications, anticodon mutations, loss of secondary structures and high gene translocation rates. Duplicated control regions are found in the Aeolothripidae and the 'core' Thripinae clade but do not appear to promote gene rearrangement as previously proposed. Phylogenetic analysis of thrips mitochondrial sequence data supports the monophyly of two suborders, a sister-group relationship between Stenurothripidae and Thripidae, and suggests a novel set of relationships between thripid genera. Ancestral state reconstructions indicate that genome rearrangements are common, with just eight gene blocks conserved between any thrips species and the ancestral insect mitochondrial genome. Conversely, 71 derived rearrangements are shared between at least two species, and 24 of these are unambiguous synapomorphies for clades identified by phylogenetic analysis. While the reconstructed sequence of genome rearrangements among the protein-coding and ribosomal RNA genes could be inferred across the phylogeny, direct inference of phylogeny from rearrangement data in MLGO resulted in a highly discordant set of relationships inconsistent with both sequence-based phylogenies and previous morphological analysis. Given the demonstrated rates of genomic evolution within thrips, extensive sampling is needed to fully understand these phenomena across the order.

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Australia , Aschersonia mackerrasiae on whitefly, Cladosporium corticola on bark of Melaleuca quinquenervia , Penicillium nudgee from soil under Melaleuca quinquenervia , Pseudocercospora blackwoodiae on leaf spot of Persoonia falcata , and Pseudocercospora dalyelliae on leaf spot of Senna alata . Bolivia , Aspicilia lutzoniana on fully submersed siliceous schist in high-mountain streams, and Niesslia parviseta on the lower part and apothecial discs of Erioderma barbellatum onatwig. Brazil , Cyathus bonsai on decaying wood, Geastrum albofibrosum from moist soil with leaf litter, Laetiporus pratigiensis on a trunk of a living unknown hardwood tree species, and Scytalidium synnematicum on dead twigs of unidentified plant. Bulgaria , Amanita abscondita on sandy soil in a plantation of Quercus suber . Canada , Penicillium acericola on dead bark of Acer saccharum , and Penicillium corticola on dead bark of Acer saccharum . China , Colletotrichum qingyuanense on fruit lesion of Capsicum annuum . Denmark , Helminthosphaeria leptospora on corticioid Neohypochnicium cremicolor. Ecuador (Galapagos) , Phaeosphaeria scalesiae on Scalesia sp. Finland , Inocybe jacobssonii on calcareouss oils in dry forests and park habitats. France , Cortinarius rufomyrrheus on sandy soil under Pinus pinaster , and Periconia neominutissima on leaves of Poaceae . India , Coprinopsis fragilis on decaying bark of logs, Filoboletus keralensis on unidentified woody substrate, Penicillium sankaranii from soil, Physisporinus tamilnaduensis on the trunk of Azadirachta indica , and Poronia nagaraholensis on elephant dung. Iran , Neosetophoma fic on infected leaves of Ficus elastica . Israel , Cnidariophoma eilatica (incl. Cnidariophoma gen. nov.) from Stylophora pistillata . Italy , Lyophyllum obscurum on acidic soil. Namibia , Aureobasidium faidherbiae on dead leaf of Faidherbia albida , and Aureobasidium welwitschiae on dead leaves of Welwitschia mirabilis . Netherlands , Gaeumannomycella caricigena on dead culms of Carex elongata , Houtenomyces caricicola (incl. Houtenomyces gen. nov.) on culms of Carex disticha , Neodacampia ulmea (incl. Neodacampia gen. nov.) on branch of Ulmus laevis , Niesslia phragmiticola on dead standing culms of Phragmites australis , Pseudopyricularia caricicola on culms of Carex disticha , and Rhodoveronaea nieuwwulvenica on dead bamboo sticks. Norway , Arrhenia similis half-buried and moss-covered pieces of rotting wood in grass-grownpath. Pakistan , Mallocybe ahmadii on soil. Poland , Beskidomyces laricis (incl. Beskidomyces gen. nov.) from resin of Larix decidua ssp. polonica , Lapidomyces epipinicola from sooty mould community on Pinus nigra , and Leptographium granulatum from a gallery of Dendroctonus micans on Picea abies . Portugal , Geoglossum azoricum on mossy areas of laurel forest areas planted with Cryptomeria japonica , and Lunasporangiospora lusitanica from a biofilm covering a bio deteriorated limestone wall. Qatar , Alternaria halotolerans from hypersaline sea water, and Alternaria qatarensis from water sample collected from hypersaline lagoon. South Africa , Alfaria thamnochorti on culm of Thamnochortus fraternus , Knufia aloeicola on Aloe gariepensis , Muriseptatomyces restionacearum (incl. Muriseptatomyces gen. nov.) on culms of Restionaceae , Neocladosporium arctotis on nest of cases of bagworm moths( Lepidoptera, Psychidae ) on Arctotis auriculata , Neodevriesia scadoxi on leaves of Scadoxus puniceus , Paraloratospora schoenoplecti on stems of Schoenoplectus lacustris , Tulasnella epidendrea from the roots of Epidendrum × obrienianum , and Xenoidriella cinnamomi (incl. Xenoidriella gen. nov.) on leaf of Cinnamomum camphora . South Korea , Lemonniera fraxinea on decaying leaves of Fraxinus sp. frompond. Spain , Atheniella lauri on the bark of fallen trees of Laurus nobilis , Halocryptovalsa endophytica from surface-sterilised, asymptomatic roots of Salicornia patula , Inocybe amygdaliolens on soil in mixed forest, Inocybe pityusarum on calcareous soil in mixed forest, Inocybe roseobulbipes on acidic soils, Neonectria borealis from roots of Vitis berlandieri × Vitis rupestris , Sympoventuria eucalyptorum on leaves of Eucalyptus sp., and Tuber conchae fromsoil. Sweden , Inocybe bidumensis on calcareous soil. Thailand , Cordyceps sandindaengensis on Lepidoptera pupa, buried in soil, Ophiocordyceps kuchinaraiensis on Coleoptera larva, buried in soil, and Samsoniella winandae on Lepidoptera pupa, buriedinsoil. Taiwan region (China) , Neophaeosphaeria livistonae on dead leaf of Livistona rotundifolia . Türkiye , Melanogaster anatolicus on clay loamy soils. UK , Basingstokeomyces allii (incl. Basingstokeomyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Allium schoenoprasum . Ukraine , Xenosphaeropsis corni on recently dead stem of Cornus alba. USA , Nothotrichosporon aquaticum (incl. Nothotrichosporon gen. nov.) from water, and Periconia philadelphiana from swab of coil surface. Morphological and culture characteristics for these new taxa are supported by DNA barcodes.

Abstract The extinction risk of sharks, rays and chimaeras is higher than that for most other vertebrates due to low intrinsic population growth rates of many species and the fishing intensity they face. The Arabian Sea and adjacent waters border some of the most important chondrichthyan fishing and trading nations globally, yet there has been no previous attempt to assess the conservation status of species occurring here. Using IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Categories and Criteria and their guidelines for application at the regional level, we present the first assessment of extinction risk for 153 species of sharks, rays and chimaeras. Results indicate that this region, home to 15% of described chondrichthyans including 30 endemic species, has some of the most threatened chondrichthyan populations in the world. Seventy‐eight species (50.9%) were assessed as threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), and 27 species (17.6%) as Near Threatened. Twenty‐nine species (19%) were Data Deficient with insufficient information to assess their status. Chondrichthyan populations have significantly declined due to largely uncontrolled and unregulated fisheries combined with habitat degradation. Further, there is limited political will and national and regional capacities to assess, manage, conserve or rebuild stocks. Outside the few deepsea locations that are lightly exploited, the prognosis for the recovery of most species is poor in the near‐absence of management. Concerted national and regional management measures are urgently needed to ensure extinctions are avoided, the sustainability of more productive species is secured, and to avoid the continued thinning of the regional food security portfolio.

The development of gas sensing devices to detect environmentally toxic, hazardous, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has witnessed a surge of immense interest over the past few decades, motivated mainly by the significant progress in technological advancements in the gas sensing field. A great deal of research has been dedicated to developing robust, cost-effective, and miniaturized gas sensing platforms with high efficiency. Compared to conventional metal-oxide based gas sensing materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have garnered tremendous attention in a variety of fields, including the gas sensing field, due to their fascinating features such as high adsorption sites for gas molecules, high porosity, tunable morphologies, structural diversities, and ability of room temperature (RT) sensing. This review summarizes the current advancement in various pristine MOF materials and their composites for different electrical transducer-based gas sensing applications. The review begins with a discussion on the overview of gas sensors, the significance of MOFs, and their scope in the gas sensing field. Next, gas sensing applications are divided into four categories based on different advanced transducers: chemiresistive, capacitive, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), and organic field-effect transistor (OFET) based gas sensors. Their fundamental concepts, gas sensing ability towards various gases, sensing mechanisms, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, this review is concluded with a summary, existing challenges, and future perspectives.

Abstract Little is known about the habitat requirements of Australian bats; however, this information is needed to make better‐informed decisions when systems are disturbed. This study contrasts the roosting and foraging ecology of the eastern forest bat Vespadelus pumilus (Vespertilionidae), one of Australia’s smallest bats, between two sites of differing disturbance history on the mid‐north coast of New South Wales. Lorne Flora Reserve (182 ha) is primarily old‐growth forest surrounded by regrowth forest and eucalypt plantations, while Swans Crossing is dominated by regrowth and eucalypt plantations established on part of an old dairy farm. A total of 38 bats were tracked during the maternity and mating seasons at the two sites. Roost preferences were determined by comparing trees used as roosts with those randomly available, while foraging bats were triangulated from fixed stations at night. Bats tracked at Lorne Flora Reserve typically roosted in hollows within large, mature trees and showed a strong preference for roosting and foraging (females only) within the Reserve. Lactating females at Swans Crossing roosted in hollows of remnant rainforest trees within a gully and dead eucalypts, while males often roosted in understorey trees (such as Acacia ). Dead trees were frequently used as roosts at both sites. Under both disturbance histories, the mean distance of female maternity roosts from creeks was 20 m, indicating that riparian zones provide important roosting habitat for V. pumilus . However, roosts shifted to the mid‐slope prior to winter when bats mate. Retention of mature trees in a variety of topographic locations may allow behavioural adjustments with the seasons. Bats caught in the regrowth forest also foraged there, with foraging ranges averaging just 5.3 ha ( n = 10), indicating that regrowth is used by this bat for both foraging and roosting.

Abstract This preliminary investigation of the recent spate of deadly flash floods and debris flows in Ladakh (India) over the last decade identifies uncontrolled development in hazardous locations as an important factor contributing to loss of life and property damage in this high mountain desert. The sediments exposed in the channel banks and on the alluvial fans of several mountain streams in the area indicate a long history of flash floods and debris flows resulting from intense storms, which appear to have increased in frequency within the last decade. The signposts of these recurrent hazards are being ignored as a growing economy, which is boosted by a well‐established tourism industry, is now driving development onto lands that are susceptible to floods and debris flow hazards. In this science briefing we argue that the increasing vulnerability in Ladakh should be addressed with sound disaster governance strategies that are proactive, rather than reactionary. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Genetic introgression not only provides material for adaptive evolution but also confounds our understanding of evolutionary history. This is particularly true for canids, a species complex in which genome sequencing and analysis has revealed a complex history of admixture and introgression. Here, we sequence 19 new whole genomes from high-altitude Tibetan and Himalayan wolves and dogs and combine these into a larger data set of 166 whole canid genomes. Using these data, we explore the evolutionary history and adaptation of these and other canid lineages. We find that Tibetan and Himalayan wolves are closely related to each other, and that ∼39% of their nuclear genome is derived from an as-yet-unrecognized wolf-like lineage that is deeply diverged from living Holarctic wolves and dogs. The EPAS1 haplotype, which is present at high frequencies in Tibetan dog breeds and wolves and confers an adaptive advantage to animals living at high altitudes, was probably derived from this ancient lineage. Our study underscores the complexity of canid evolution and demonstrates how admixture and introgression can shape the evolutionary trajectories of species.

Alkaloids isolated from Annona squamosa have shown larvicidal growth-regulating and chemosterilant activities against Anopheles stephensi at concentrations of 50 to 200 ppm. Adults exposed as larvae to different treatments showed reduced fecundity and fertility in females. Mortality in the larvae, pupae and adults produced about a 52-92% decrease in the laboratory experiment. The total developmental period was slightly reduced from the control. Treatment with the alkaloids had a significant effect on the mortality, emergence and reproductive physiology of An. stephensi.

Abstract A comprehensive review of mantid taxonomy is attempted, including descriptions of taxa, various developmental stages, notes on habitat preference in relation to temperature, altitude, vegetation and other factors, and observations on offensive, defensive, prey capture and copulatory behaviour. Biological observations on mortality, colour pattern of various instars and their significance, oxygen consumption and data on morphometrics of some species are provided. The patterns of distribution within India and in relation to the Oriental Region and other zoogeographic regions is also discussed. A total of 162 species under 68 genera of mantids from India are listed, of which 118 species are studied and others reviewed from literature. Two new genera (Pseudothespis, Parananomantis) and ten new species (Acromantis nicobarica, Axaxarcha intermedia, Leptomantis nigrocoxata, Pseudothespis meghalayensis, Nanomantis lactea, Parananomantis brevis, Hierodula (H.) assamensis, H. (H.) beieri, H. (H.) nicobarica, and Mantis indica) are described. Haldwania liliputana is synonymized under Gonypetyllis semuncialis (n. syn.).

This is the first attempt to update the list of spiders described formally in India. The list is compiled following Platnick's The World Spider Catalog. Extensive search of scientific peerreviewed publications in the region revealed 40 new species, which are not included in Platnick's list. The checklist is compared extensively with Tikader's list. In all, 1442 species of spiders in 59 families have been listed as described formally from India. Taxonomic verification is recommended for 51 species. Seventy-nine species listed by Tikader do not occur in India. Fifty-three species listed by Dyal and included in Platnick's list do not occur in India. The paper lists replacement names, incertae sedis,

Water is one of the major sources that spread human diseases through contamination with bacteria and other pathogenic microorganisms. This review focuses on microbial hazards as they are often present in water and wastewater and cause various human diseases. Among the currently used disinfection methods, sonochemical reactors (SCRs) that produce free radicals combined with advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have received significant attention from the scientific community. Also, this review discussed various types of cavitation reactors, such as acoustic cavitation reactors (ACRs) utilizing ultrasonic energy (UE), which had been widely employed, involving AOPs for treating contaminated waters. Besides ACRs, hydrodynamic cavitation reactors (HCRs) also effectively destroy and deactivate microorganisms to varying degrees. Cavitation is the fundamental phenomenon responsible for initiating many sonochemical reactions in liquids. Bacterial degradation occurs mainly due to the thinning of microbial membranes, local warming, and the generation of free radicals due to cavitation. Over the years, although extensive investigations have focused on the antimicrobial effects of UE (ultrasonic energy), the primary mechanism underlying the cavitation effects in the disinfection process, inactivation of microbes, and chemical reactions involved are still poorly understood. Therefore, studies under different conditions often lead to inconsistent results. This review investigates and compares other mechanisms and performances from greener and environmentally friendly sonochemical techniques to the remediation of microbial hazards associated with water and wastewater. Finally, the energy aspects, challenges, and recommendations for future perspectives have been provided.