Department of Primary Industries and Regions South Australia

UNLABELLED: Herbs and spices have a traditional history of use, with strong roles in cultural heritage, and in the appreciation of food and its links to health. Demonstrating the benefits of foods by scientific means remains a challenge, particularly when compared with standards applied for assessing pharmaceutical agents. Pharmaceuticals are small-molecular-weight compounds consumed in a purified and concentrated form. Food is eaten in combinations, in relatively large, unmeasured quantities under highly socialised conditions. The real challenge lies not in proving whether foods, such as herbs and spices, have health benefits, but in defining what these benefits are and developing the methods to expose them by scientific means. CULTURAL ASPECTS: The place of herbs and spices in the diet needs to be considered in reviewing health benefits. This includes definitions of the food category and the way in which benefits might be viewed, and therefore researched. Research may focus on identifying bioactive substances in herbs and spices, or on their properties as a whole food, and/or be set in the context of a dietary cuisine. THE ROLE OF HERBS AND SPICES IN HEALTH: The antioxidant properties of herbs and spices are of particular interest in view of the impact of oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the development of atherosclerosis. There is level III-3 evidence (National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC] levels of evidence) that consuming a half to one clove of garlic (or equivalent) daily may have a cholesterol-lowering effect of up to 9%. There is level III-1 evidence that 7.2 g of aged garlic extract has been associated with anticlotting (in-vivo studies), as well as modest reductions in blood pressure (an approximate 5.5% decrease in systolic blood pressure). A range of bioactive compounds in herbs and spices have been studied for anticarcinogenic properties in animals, but the challenge lies in integrating this knowledge to ascertain whether any effects can be observed in humans, and within defined cuisines. Research on the effects of herbs and spices on mental health should distinguish between cognitive decline associated with ageing and the acute effects of psychological and cognitive function. There is level I and II evidence for the effect of some herbal supplements on psychological and cognitive function. There is very limited scientific evidence for the effects of herbs and spices on type 2 diabetes mellitus, with the best evidence being available for the effect of ginseng on glycaemia, albeit based on four studies. More research is required, particularly examining the effects of chronic consumption patterns. With increasing interest in alternatives to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents in the management of chronic inflammation, research is emerging on the use of food extracts. There is level II evidence for the use of ginger in ameliorating arthritic knee pain; however, the improvement is modest and the efficacy of ginger treatment is ranked below that of ibuprofen. More definitive research is required. PUBLIC HEALTH AND DIETARY IMPLICATIONS: Recommendations for intakes of food in the Australian guide to healthy eating do not yet include suggested intakes of herbs and spices. Future consideration should be given to including more explicit recommendations about their place in a healthy diet. In addition to delivering antioxidant and other properties, herbs and spices can be used in recipes to partially or wholly replace less desirable ingredients such as salt, sugar and added saturated fat in, for example, marinades and dressings, stir-fry dishes, casseroles, soups, curries and Mediterranean-style cooking. Vegetable dishes and vegetarian options may be more appetising when prepared with herbs and spices. FUTURE DIRECTIONS: As several metabolic diseases and age-related degenerative disorders are closely associated with oxidative processes in the body, the use of herbs and spices as a source of antioxidants to combat oxidation warrants further attention. Immediate studies should focus on validating the antioxidant capacity of herbs and spices after harvest, as well as testing their effects on markers of oxidation. This will work in parallel with clinical trials that are aiming to establish antioxidants as mediators of disease prevention. From a dietary perspective, the functionality of herbs and spices will be exposed through consideration of their properties as foods. As with most foods, the real benefits of including them in the diet are likely to emerge with a better understanding of the attributes of health that are best supported by food, and in methodological developments addressing the evidence base for their effects. These developments are well underway through evidence-based frameworks for substantiating health claims related to foods. At present, recommendations are warranted to support the consumption of foods rich in bioactive components, such as herbs and spices. With time, we can expect to see a greater body of scientific evidence supporting the benefits of herbs and spices in the overall maintenance of health and protection from disease.

Abstract The electrochemical reduction of O 2 via a two‐electron reaction pathway to H 2 O 2 provides a possibility for replacing the current anthraquinone process, enabling sustainable and decentralized H 2 O 2 production. Here, a nitrogen‐rich few‐layered graphene (N‐FLG) with a tunable nitrogen configuration is developed for electrochemical H 2 O 2 generation. A positive correlation between the content of pyrrolic‐N and the H 2 O 2 selectivity is experimentally observed. The critical role of pyrrolic‐N is elucidated by the variable intermediate adsorption profiles as well as the dependent negative shifts of the pyrrolic‐N peak on X‐ray adsorption near edge structure spectra. By virtue of the optimized N doping configuration and the unique porous structure, the as‐fabricated N‐FLG electrocatalyst exhibits high selectivity toward electrochemical H 2 O 2 synthesis as well as superior long‐term stability. To achieve high‐value products on both the anode and cathode with optimized energy efficiency, a practical device coupling electrochemical H 2 O 2 generation and furfural oxidation is assembled, simultaneously enabling a high yield rate of H 2 O 2 at the cathode (9.66 mol h −1 g cat −1 ) and 2‐furoic acid at the anode (2.076 mol m −2 h −1 ) under a small cell voltage of 1.8 V.

A. M. Koltunow; Apomixis: Embryo Sacs and Embryos Formed without Meiosis or Fertilization in Ovules., The Plant Cell, Volume 5, Issue 10, 1 October 1993, Pages

Climate change presents the need and opportunity for what the Stern report called ‘major, non-marginal change’. Such transformational adaptation is rapidly emerging as a serious topic in agriculture. This paper provides an overview of the topic as it applies to agriculture, focusing on the Australian situation. It does so by first defining transformational adaptation, distinguishing it from other more incremental but overlapping modes of climate change adaptation and positing its emergence in agriculture as a response to both drivers and opportunities. The multiple dimensions of transformational adaptation are highlighted before two types or cases are focussed upon in order to tease out issues and highlight two major examples of transformation in agriculture in the past. Four key issues about climate change adaptation in agriculture particularly pertinent for transformational adaptation are then reviewed: the identification, level, distribution and management of the costs of adaptation; the definition, potential for and need to avoid maladaptation; the capacity demands that this level of adaptation presents; and the role of government in adaptation. Overall, transformational adaptation poses potential great gains but also great risks. It reinforces the realisation that agricultural research can no longer remain insulated from off-farm, non-science or non-agricultural knowledge or processes. Support and guidance of transformational adaptation requires that we understand how Australian agriculture is currently, and could be, positioned within the landscape, rural communities, and broader social, political and cultural environment.

Abstract Polydopamine and related polycatecholamines can be easily deposited onto almost any surface from mild, aqueous solution. This results in durable, nanoscale coatings that exhibit high biocompatibility and have useful chemical and electronic properties. Additionally, these materials can be readily chemically and physically modified, and consequently, they are used extensively for surface modification. This review investigates the formation and modification of polycatecholamines; how they adhere to surfaces; and the chemical, physical, and electronic properties of the resultant materials. There is also an exploration of the extraordinary array of applications in which these fascinating materials are employed.

In this paper we evaluate a technique to detect and recover messages from packet collisions by exploiting the capture effect. It can differentiate between collisions and packet loss and can identify the nodes involved in the collisions. This information is provided at virtually no extra cost and can produce significant improvements in existing collision mediation schemes. We characterize this technique using controlled collision experiments and evaluate it in real world flooding experiments on a 36-node sensor network.

Abstract Graphene oxide is extensively compounded with polymers toward a wide variety of applications. Less studied are few‐layer or multi‐layer highly crystalline graphene, both of which are herein named as graphene platelets. This article aims to provide the most recent advancements of graphene platelets and their polymer composites. A first focus lies on cost‐effective fabrication strategies of graphene platelets – intercalation and exfoliation – which work in a relative mass scale, e.g., 5.3 g h−1. As no heavy oxidization is involved, the platelets have high crystalline integrity, e.g., C:O ratio over 8.0, with thicknesses 2–4 nm and lateral dimension up to a few micrometers. Through carefully selecting the solvent for dispersion and the molecules for surface modification, graphene platelets can be liquid‐processable, enabling them to be printed, coated, or compounded with various polymers. A purpose‐designed experiment is undertaken to unravel the effect of reasonable ultrasonication time on the platelet thickness. Typical polymer/graphene platelet composites are critically examined for their preparation, structure, and applications such as thermal management and flexible/stretchable electronic devices. Perspectives on the limitations, current challenges, and future prospects for graphene platelets and their polymer composites are provided.

Ascochyta blight (AB), caused by Ascochyta rabiei is a major disease of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), especially in areas where cool, cloudy, and humid weather persists during the crop season. Several epidemics of AB causing complete yield loss have been reported. The fungus mainly survives between seasons through infected seed and in infected crop debris. Despite extensive pathological and molecular studies, the nature and extent of pathogenic variability in A. rabiei have not been clearly established. Accumulation of phenols, phytoalexins (medicarpin and maackiain), and hydrolytic enzymes has been associated with host-plant resistance (HPR). Seed treatment and foliar application of fungicides are commonly recommended for AB management, but further information on biology and survival of A. rabiei is needed to devise more effective management strategies. Recent studies on inheritance of AB resistance indicate that several quantitative trait loci (QTLs) control resistance. In this paper we review the biology of A. rabiei, HPR, and management options, with an emphasis on future research priorities.

The Gawler craton is the major crustal province in the southern Australian Proterozoic and is pivotal in models seeking to describe the evolution of Proterozoic Australia. The craton is host to the Olympic Dam iron oxide Cu-Au-U-REE deposit, as well as a number of other iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG), Au, and iron ore deposits. The evolution of the Gawler craton is dominated by two major phases of tectonic activity, Late Archean and late Paleoproterozoic-early Mesoproterozoic, in total spanning ca. 1 billion years. The Late Archean (2560-2500 Ma) basin development was coeval with arclike felsic magmatism and mafic-ultramafic magmas, including komatiites. Collisional deformation between 2480 and 2420 Ma led to ca. 400 m.y. of tectonic quiescence, conceivably within an early Paleoproterozoic continental interior. The second major phase of tectonic activity was in the middle to late Paleoproterozoic and early Mesoproterozoic (2000-1450 Ma). Paleoproterozoic tectonism was initially dominated by rift-related events, which produced a series of basins over the interval ca. 1900 to 1730 Ma, some of which contain significant iron ore reserves. Transient contractional deformation at ca. 1850 Ma led to batholith-scale granitic magmatism, in part derived from melting of the late Archean basement. Major basin development was finally terminated by the 1730 to 1690 Ma Kimban orogeny, the effects of which are widespread and include the formation of crustal-scale shear systems, granitic magmatism, and low- to high-grade metamorphism. The Kimban orogeny was followed by a renewed period of extension between ca. 1680 and 1640 Ma, leading to local magmatism and sedimentation which appears in part to have been coeval with the high-grade ca. 1650 Ma Ooldean event in the western Gawler craton. At ca. 1620 to 1615 Ma, the generation of the arc-related St. Peter Suite in the southern Gawler craton implies that craton components were located at an active plate margin. The arc environment was superseded by a transition to a continental interior regime, which coincided with the voluminous Gawler Range Volcanics (1595-1590 Ma) and Hiltaba Suite granitoids (1595-1575 Ma). The Hiltaba Suite is dominated by high T fractionated felsic rocks with coeval mafic magmatism confirming a mantle involvement. Emplacement of the Hiltaba Suite coincided with the major mineralizing interval in the Gawler craton. Regionally, two distinct mineral systems have been recognized: the Olympic IOCG province in the eastern part of the craton, and the gold-dominated systems within the central Gawler gold province. The spatial distribution of IOCG versus Au-dominated mineral systems appears to reflect regional variations in crustal composition and Hiltaba Suite petrogeneses. Hiltaba-aged granites in the Olympic IOCG province are isotopically more evolved, richer in U and Th, and oxidized compared to similar aged granites in the Au-dominated province. Modern-day heat flow in the IOCG province is significantly higher (90 ± 10 mWm-2) compared to the Au-dominated province (54 ± 5 mWm-2), suggesting there are important lithospheric compositional differences between the two metallogenic provinces, which may reflect an older phase of craton assembly. Widespread northwest-southeast contractional deformation coeval with the emplacement of the Hiltaba Suite is expressed by the formation and/or reactivation of shear zones ranging up to crustal scale. Within this regime, northwest-trending structures such as those in the vicinity of the Olympic Dam deposit are likely to have accommodated dilation associated with strike-slip movements. Intersection between these structures and northeast-trending contractional faults may have formed suitable structural traps for 1590 to 1580 Ma mineralization. The timing of syn-Hiltaba deformation overlaps with transpression and medium to high-grade metamorphism associated with the ca. 1570 to 1540 Ma Kararan orogeny which dominates the geophysical architecture of the central northern part of the craton. The youngest phase of deformation in the craton is expressed by reactivation of shear zones between ca. 1470 and 1450 Ma and regional cooling. © 2007 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Abstract Mining operations during the early 1990s at Uley Graphite Mine near Port Lincoln on southern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia, uncovered abundant nontronite veins in deeply weathered granulite facies schist, gneiss, and amphibolite of Palaeoproterozoic age. Two types of nontronite are present: a bright yellowish-green clay (NAu-1) distributed as veinlets and diffuse alteration zones within kaolinized schist and gneiss, and a massive to earthy, dark-brown clay (NAu-2) infilling fracture networks mainly in amphibolite or basic granulite. The nontronites are the product of low-temperature hydrothermal alteration of primary minerals, biotite, and amphibole. The principal chemical difference between NAu-1 and NAu-2 is a higher alumina content in NAu-1, which was either inherited during hydrothermal alteration of biotite in the host rock or acquired through recrystallization of nontronite during subsequent weathering and associated kaolinization. Sufficient bulk samples of both NAu-1 and NAu-2 were collected to supplement reference nontronite of the Source Clay Repository of The Clay Minerals Society. The clay fraction of the bulk samples is typically >85%. NAu-1 contains minor kaolin and quartz which are easily removed to give a high purity nontronite of composition M + 1.05 [Si 6.98 Al 1.02 ][Al 0.29 Fe 3.68 Mg 0.04 ]O 20 (OH) 4 , similar to that of nontronite from Garfield, Washington. NAu-2 contains fewer total impurities but the presence of trace amounts of submicron carbonate and iron oxyhydroxide requires additional chemical treatment to produce a nontronite of purity comparable to NAu-1. Composition of NAu-2 was calculated as M + 0.72 [Si 7.55 Al 0.45 ][Fe 3.83 Mg 0.05 ]O 20 (OH) 4 , although infrared data indicate that at least some Fe is in tetrahedral coordination.

Abstract Elevated Cd concentrations have been observed in potato ( Solatium tuberosum L.) tubers from commercial crops in certain regions of southern Australia. Reasons for enhanced Cd uptake by tubers were investigated by a survey of commercial crops and associated soils. Eighty‐nine sites were selected and paired tuber and soil samples taken. Concentration of Cd in tubers was compared to potato variety, tuber elemental composition, and chemical‐physical characteristics of topsoil (0–150) and subsoil (150–300 mm). Tuber Cd concentrations were positively related to soil electrical conductivity (EC) and extractable Cl ( R 2 = 0.62, P < 0.001) in the topsoil, with extractable Cl accounting for more variation than EC. Tuber Cd concentrations were not strongly related ( R 2 = 0.23, P < 0.05) to potato variety alone. However, inclusion of variety and EDTA‐extractable Zn with water‐extractable Cl in a multivariate model resulted in a small but significant improvement in the variance accounted for by the model ( R 2 =0.73, P < 0.001). Tuber Cd was unrelated to tuber concentrations of P or S, but was positively related to concentrations of major cations in the tuber, particularly Na. Soil pH, total C, EDTA‐extractable Cd, or particle‐size distribution were not correlated to tuber Cd concentrations, either singly or after inclusion in a multivariate model with soil Cl concentrations. As Cl is known to mobilize soil Cd and increase its phytoavailability, elevated Cd concentrations in potato tubers in southern Australia appear to be largely a result of the use of saline irrigation waters.

The importance of organic matter produced in seagrass meadows (seagrass and epiphytic algae) to the nutrition of a valuable fisheries species (yellowfin whiting Sillago schomburgkii Peters) occurring over unvegetated mudflats was measured using the isotopic composition (δ 13 C, δ 15 N) of fish, their polychaete prey, and available autotrophic sources at several locations in southern Australia during 2 periods (summer, winter).Values for δ 13 C and δ 15 N for autotrophs and fishes varied little between seasons.Sources could be separated into 3 groups based on δ 13 C: seagrass and epiphytes (mean δ 13 C = -10.5 ‰), benthic microalgae and macroalgae (-19.5 ‰), and saltmarsh and mangroves (-26.5 ‰).Values of δ 15 N for the sources were 2 to 5 ‰.Values of δ 13 C for fish (-13.3 ‰) corresponded with those of their polychaete prey (-12.5 ‰) and ultimately with those of seagrass and epiphytes.Values of δ 15 N were 5 to 6 ‰ more enriched than sources.Modelling of feasible source mixtures showed that seagrass and epiphytes were the most important contributors to the nutrition of fish, but their relative importance varied between seasons.The median contribution by other sources was <10%.Spatial analyses showed that saltmarsh plants contributed significantly to the variability in S. schomburgkii nutrition among locations, while macroalgae contributed in summer.The similarity in δ 13 C values of polychaetes and S. schomburgkii is consistent with source material from a subtidal habitat being incorporated into food webs supporting a fisheries species in adjacent intertidal habitats via a largely sedentary intermediary.

During application of agrochemicals spray droplets can drift beyond the intended target to non-target receptors, including water, plants and animals. Factors affecting this spray drift include mode of application, droplet size, which can be modified by the nozzle types, formulation adjuvants, wind direction, wind speed, air stability, relative humidity, temperature and height of released spray relative to the crop canopy. The rate of fall of spray droplets depends upon the size of the droplets but is modified by entrainment in a mobile air mass and is also influenced by the rate of evaporation of the liquid constituting the aerosol. The longer the aerosol remains in the air before falling to the ground (or alternatively striking an object above ground) the greater the opportunity for it to be carried away from its intended target. In general, all size classes of droplets are capable of movement off target, but the smallest are likely to move the farthest before depositing on the ground or a non-target receptor. It is not possible to avoid spray drift completely but it can be minimized by using best-management practices. These include using appropriate nozzle types, shields, spray pressure, volumes per area sprayed, tractor speed and only spraying when climatic conditions are suitable. Field layout can also influence spray drift, whilst crop-free and spray-free buffer zones and windbreak crops can also have a mitigating effect. Various models are available to estimate the environmental exposure from spray drift at the time of application.

Abstract After dry summers or drought, eucalypt forest soils at two sites in southeastern Australia developed hydrophobic or non‐wetting surface characteristics that reduced infiltration, measured using a sprinkling infiltrometer. At one site the development of hydrophobic conditions caused the rainfall to runoff conversion efficiency of a forested catchment to increase from 5 per cent to 15 per cent. Under non‐hydrophobic conditions at this site, grassland always generated more runoff than forest. However, one major rainfall‐runoff was recorded at a time of highly hydrophobic forest soil conditions and this storm generated greater runoff on the forested catchment than the grassland catchment. At the second site forest soils have naturally highly conductive surface layers because of a dense network of macropores and pathways for preferential flow. Hydrophobic conditions produced by drought caused soil water movement to be confined to only a few of the larger macropores exposed to surface ponded water. Even so, infiltration rates remained relatively high so that the impacts of hydrophobic soils were not translated into increased catchment runoff as at the first site.

The Weibull, Morgan–Mercer–Flodin, Richards, Mitscherlich, Gompertz and logistic functions were each fitted to a wide range of cumulative germinations of non-dormant seed. The Weibull proved the most suitable for describing cumulative germination as it provided a consistently close fit to the data and was insensitive to choice of starting values, thus making it fairly easy to fit. The others provided either an inferior fit or else a similar fit but with a greater sensitivity to starting values. The four parameters of the Weibull function reflect maximum germination, germination rate, the lag in the onset of germination and the shape of the cumulative distribution. A comparison between non-linear and linear fits of the Mitscherlich, Gompertz and logistic functions showed the clear superiority of non-linear methods.

Lagoviruses belong to the Caliciviridae family. They were first recognized as highly pathogenic viruses of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and European brown hare (Lepus europaeus) that emerged in the 1970-1980s, namely, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) and European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV), according to the host species from which they had been first detected. However, the diversity of lagoviruses has recently expanded to include new related viruses with varying pathogenicity, geographic distribution and host ranges. Together with the frequent recombination observed amongst circulating viruses, there is a clear need to establish precise guidelines for classifying and naming lagovirus strains. Therefore, here we propose a new nomenclature based on phylogenetic relationships. In this new nomenclature, a single species of lagovirus would be recognized and called Lagovirus europaeus. The species would be divided into two genogroups that correspond to RHDV- and EBHSV-related viruses, respectively. Genogroups could be subdivided into genotypes, which could themselves be subdivided into phylogenetically well-supported variants. Based on available sequences, pairwise distance cutoffs have been defined, but with the accumulation of new sequences these cutoffs may need to be revised. We propose that an international working group could coordinate the nomenclature of lagoviruses and any proposals for revision.

Recently a paper authored by ourselves and a number of co-authors about the proportion of phenotypic variation in height that is explained by common SNPs was published in Nature Genetics (Yang et al., 2010). Common SNPs explain a large proportion of the heritability for human height (Yang et al.). During the refereeing process (the paper was rejected by two other journals before publication in Nature Genetics) and following the publication of Yang et al. (2010) it became clear to us that the methodology we applied, the interpretation of the results and the consequences of the findings on the genetic architecture of human height and that for other traits such as complex disease are not well understood or appreciated. Here we explain some of these issues in a style that is different from the primary publication, that is, in the form of a number of comments and questions and answers. We also report a number of additional results that show that the estimates of additive genetic variation are not driven by population structure.

Abstract Marine aquaculture is growing quickly and has substantial effects on people and the environment. Existing research has demonstrated that marine aquaculture can contribute to ecosystem service provisioning that extends beyond production of a resource; however, the extent and significance of these goods and services are not well understood. Here we review existing knowledge of ecosystem service provision by marine aquaculture by systematically examining 129 peer reviewed papers that describe the provision of nine distinct ecosystem services by operational or experimental marine aquaculture farms. We quantify service provision and classify services by type and by farm characteristics. We show that while certain services, such as nutrient absorption by kelp aquaculture, are well understood and have been documented across multiple species, scales and environments, the evidence for other services, such as the cultural service of tourism, is currently minimal. Importantly, we identify ecosystem services associated with a diversity of farm types (including fish, bivalve, algae and polyculture farms) but find that certain services were most often delivered by specific farm types (e.g. habitat services were most often associated with fish farms). Incorporating acknowledgement of ecosystem services into farm design and planning has the potential to improve environmental performance and sustainable management of aquaculture. However, outstanding questions, including how spatial expansion of marine aquaculture will affect the provisioning of these services, are important challenges facing sustainable development.

Abstract Continental lithosphere formed and reworked during the Palaeoproterozoic era is a major component of pre-1070 Ma Australia and the East Antarctic Shield. Within this lithosphere, the Mawson Continent encompasses the Gawler–Adélie Craton in southern Australia and Antarctica, and crust of the Miller Range, Transantarctic Mountains, which are interpreted to have assembled during c . 1730–1690 Ma tectonism of the Kimban–Nimrod–Strangways orogenies. Recent geochronology has strengthened correlations between the Mawson Continent and Shackleton Range (Antarctica), but the potential for Meso- to Neoproterozoic rifting and/or accretion events prevent any confident extension of the Mawson Continent to include the Shackleton Range. Proposed later addition ( c . 1600–1550 Ma) of the Coompana Block and its Antarctic extension provides the final component of the Mawson Continent. A new model proposed for the late Archaean to early Mesoproterozoic evolution of the Mawson Continent highlights important timelines in the tectonic evolution of the Australian lithosphere. The Gawler–Adélie Craton and adjacent Curnamona Province are interpreted to share correlatable timelines with the North Australian Craton at c . 2500–2430 Ma, c . 2000 Ma, 1865–1850 Ma, 1730–1690 Ma and 1600–1550 Ma. These common timelines are used to suggest the Gawler–Adélie Craton and North Australian Craton formed a contiguous continental terrain during the entirety of the Palaeoproterozoic. Revised palaeomagnetic constraints for global correlation of proto-Australia highlight an apparently static relationship with northwestern Laurentia during the c . 1730–1590 Ma time period. These data have important implications for many previously proposed reconstruction models and are used as a primary constraint in the configuration of the reconstruction model proposed herein. This palaeomagnetic link strengthens previous correlations between the Wernecke region of northwestern Laurentia and terrains in the eastern margin of proto-Australia.

Climate change projections for Australia predict increasing temperatures, changes to rainfall patterns, and elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations. The aims of this study were to predict plant production responses to elevated CO2 concentrations using the SGS Pasture Model and DairyMod, and then to quantify the effects of climate change scenarios for 2030 and 2070 on predicted pasture growth, species composition, and soil moisture conditions of 5 existing pasture systems in climates ranging from cool temperate to subtropical, relative to a historical baseline. Three future climate scenarios were created for each site by adjusting historical climate data according to temperature and rainfall change projections for 2030, 2070 mid- and 2070 high-emission scenarios, using output from the CSIRO Mark 3 global climate model. In the absence of other climate changes, mean annual pasture production at an elevated CO2 concentration of 550 ppm was predicted to be 24–29% higher than at 380 ppm CO2 in temperate (C3) species-dominant pastures in southern Australia, with lower mean responses in a mixed C3/C4 pasture at Barraba in northern New South Wales (17%) and in a C4 pasture at Mutdapilly in south-eastern Queensland (9%). In the future climate scenarios at the Barraba and Mutdapilly sites in subtropical and subhumid climates, respectively, where climate projections indicated warming of up to 4.4°C, with little change in annual rainfall, modelling predicted increased pasture production and a shift towards C4 species dominance. In Mediterranean, temperate, and cool temperate climates, climate change projections indicated warming of up to 3.3°C, with annual rainfall reduced by up to 28%. Under future climate scenarios at Wagga Wagga, NSW, and Ellinbank, Victoria, our study predicted increased winter and early spring pasture growth rates, but this was counteracted by a predicted shorter spring growing season, with annual pasture production higher than the baseline under the 2030 climate scenario, but reduced by up to 19% under the 2070 high scenario. In a cool temperate environment at Elliott, Tasmania, annual production was higher than the baseline in all 3 future climate scenarios, but highest in the 2070 mid scenario. At the Wagga Wagga, Ellinbank, and Elliott sites the effect of rainfall declines on pasture production was moderated by a predicted reduction in drainage below the root zone and, at Ellinbank, the use of deeper rooted plant systems was shown to be an effective adaptation to mitigate some of the effect of lower rainfall.