William Harvey Research Institute

Abstract Genetic variants that inactivate protein-coding genes are a powerful source of information about the phenotypic consequences of gene disruption: genes that are crucial for the function of an organism will be depleted of such variants in natural populations, whereas non-essential genes will tolerate their accumulation. However, predicted loss-of-function variants are enriched for annotation errors, and tend to be found at extremely low frequencies, so their analysis requires careful variant annotation and very large sample sizes 1 . Here we describe the aggregation of 125,748 exomes and 15,708 genomes from human sequencing studies into the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD). We identify 443,769 high-confidence predicted loss-of-function variants in this cohort after filtering for artefacts caused by sequencing and annotation errors. Using an improved model of human mutation rates, we classify human protein-coding genes along a spectrum that represents tolerance to inactivation, validate this classification using data from model organisms and engineered human cells, and show that it can be used to improve the power of gene discovery for both common and rare diseases.

There is increasing evidence that genome-wide association (GWA) studies represent a powerful approach to the identification of genes involved in common human diseases. We describe a joint GWA study (using the Affymetrix GeneChip 500K Mapping Array Set) undertaken in the British population, which has examined approximately 2,000 individuals for each of 7 major diseases and a shared set of approximately 3,000 controls. Case-control comparisons identified 24 independent association signals at P < 5 x 10(-7): 1 in bipolar disorder, 1 in coronary artery disease, 9 in Crohn's disease, 3 in rheumatoid arthritis, 7 in type 1 diabetes and 3 in type 2 diabetes. On the basis of prior findings and replication studies thus-far completed, almost all of these signals reflect genuine susceptibility effects. We observed association at many previously identified loci, and found compelling evidence that some loci confer risk for more than one of the diseases studied. Across all diseases, we identified a large number of further signals (including 58 loci with single-point P values between 10(-5) and 5 x 10(-7)) likely to yield additional susceptibility loci. The importance of appropriately large samples was confirmed by the modest effect sizes observed at most loci identified. This study thus represents a thorough validation of the GWA approach. It has also demonstrated that careful use of a shared control group represents a safe and effective approach to GWA analyses of multiple disease phenotypes; has generated a genome-wide genotype database for future studies of common diseases in the British population; and shown that, provided individuals with non-European ancestry are excluded, the extent of population stratification in the British population is generally modest. Our findings offer new avenues for exploring the pathophysiology of these important disorders. We anticipate that our data, results and software, which will be widely available to other investigators, will provide a powerful resource for human genetics research.

Reproducible science requires transparent reporting. The ARRIVE guidelines (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) were originally developed in 2010 to improve the reporting of animal research. They consist of a checklist of information to include in publications describing in vivo experiments to enable others to scrutinise the work adequately, evaluate its methodological rigour, and reproduce the methods and results. Despite considerable levels of endorsement by funders and journals over the years, adherence to the guidelines has been inconsistent, and the anticipated improvements in the quality of reporting in animal research publications have not been achieved. Here, we introduce ARRIVE 2.0. The guidelines have been updated and information reorganised to facilitate their use in practice. We used a Delphi exercise to prioritise and divide the items of the guidelines into 2 sets, the "ARRIVE Essential 10," which constitutes the minimum requirement, and the "Recommended Set," which describes the research context. This division facilitates improved reporting of animal research by supporting a stepwise approach to implementation. This helps journal editors and reviewers verify that the most important items are being reported in manuscripts. We have also developed the accompanying Explanation and Elaboration (E&E) document, which serves (1) to explain the rationale behind each item in the guidelines, (2) to clarify key concepts, and (3) to provide illustrative examples. We aim, through these changes, to help ensure that researchers, reviewers, and journal editors are better equipped to improve the rigour and transparency of the scientific process and thus reproducibility.

Reproducible science requires transparent reporting. The ARRIVE guidelines (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) were originally developed in 2010 to improve the reporting of animal research. They consist of a checklist of information to include in publications describing in vivo experiments to enable others to scrutinise the work adequately, evaluate its methodological rigour and reproduce the methods and results. Despite considerable levels of endorsement by funders and journals over the years, adherence to the guidelines has been inconsistent, and the anticipated improvements in the quality of reporting in animal research publications have not been achieved. Here, we introduce ARRIVE 2.0. The guidelines have been updated and information reorganised to facilitate their use in practice. We used a Delphi exercise to prioritise and divide the items of the guidelines into two sets, the 'ARRIVE Essential 10', which constitutes the minimum requirement, and the 'Recommended Set', which describes the research context. This division facilitates improved reporting of animal research by supporting a stepwise approach to implementation. This helps journal editors and reviewers verify that the most important items are being reported in manuscripts. We have also developed the accompanying Explanation and Elaboration document, which serves (1) to explain the rationale behind each item in the guidelines, (2) to clarify key concepts and (3) to provide illustrative examples. We aim, through these changes, to help ensure that researchers, reviewers and journal editors are better equipped to improve the rigour and transparency of the scientific process and thus reproducibility.

Improving the reproducibility of biomedical research is a major challenge. Transparent and accurate reporting is vital to this process; it allows readers to assess the reliability of the findings and repeat or build upon the work of other researchers. The ARRIVE guidelines (Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) were developed in 2010 to help authors and journals identify the minimum information necessary to report in publications describing in vivo experiments. Despite widespread endorsement by the scientific community, the impact of ARRIVE on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications has been limited. We have revised the ARRIVE guidelines to update them and facilitate their use in practice. The revised guidelines are published alongside this paper. This explanation and elaboration document was developed as part of the revision. It provides further information about each of the 21 items in ARRIVE 2.0, including the rationale and supporting evidence for their inclusion in the guidelines, elaboration of details to report, and examples of good reporting from the published literature. This document also covers advice and best practice in the design and conduct of animal studies to support researchers in improving standards from the start of the experimental design process through to publication.

Cyclooxygenase (COX), first purified in 1976 and cloned in 1988, is the key enzyme in the synthesis of prostaglandins (PGs) from arachidonic acid. In 1991, several laboratories identified a product from a second gene with COX activity and called it COX-2. However, COX-2 was inducible, and the inducing stimuli included pro-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors, implying a role for COX-2 in both inflammation and control of cell growth. The two isoforms of COX are almost identical in structure but have important differences in substrate and inhibitor selectivity and in their intracellular locations. Protective PGs, which preserve the integrity of the stomach lining and maintain normal renal function in a compromised kidney, are synthesized by COX-1. In addition to the induction of COX-2 in inflammatory lesions, it is present constitutively in the brain and spinal cord, where it may be involved in nerve transmission, particularly that for pain and fever. PGs made by COX-2 are also important in ovulation and in the birth process. The discovery of COX-2 has made possible the design of drugs that reduce inflammation without removing the protective PGs in the stomach and kidney made by COX-1. These highly selective COX-2 inhibitors may not only be anti-inflammatory but may also be active in colon cancer and Alzheimer's disease.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to develop clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. PARTICIPANTS: The Task Force included a chair, selected by the Clinical Guidelines Subcommittee (CGS) of The Endocrine Society, five additional experts, a methodologist, and a medical writer. The Task Force received no corporate funding or remuneration. CONSENSUS PROCESS: Consensus was guided by systematic reviews of evidence and discussions. The guidelines were reviewed and approved sequentially by The Endocrine Society's CGS and Clinical Affairs Core Committee, members responding to a web posting, and The Endocrine Society Council. At each stage the Task Force incorporated needed changes in response to written comments. CONCLUSIONS: After excluding exogenous glucocorticoid use, we recommend testing for Cushing's syndrome in patients with multiple and progressive features compatible with the syndrome, particularly those with a high discriminatory value, and patients with adrenal incidentaloma. We recommend initial use of one test with high diagnostic accuracy (urine cortisol, late night salivary cortisol, 1 mg overnight or 2 mg 48-h dexamethasone suppression test). We recommend that patients with an abnormal result see an endocrinologist and undergo a second test, either one of the above or, in some cases, a serum midnight cortisol or dexamethasone-CRH test. Patients with concordant abnormal results should undergo testing for the cause of Cushing's syndrome. Patients with concordant normal results should not undergo further evaluation. We recommend additional testing in patients with discordant results, normal responses suspected of cyclic hypercortisolism, or initially normal responses who accumulate additional features over time.

Delineation of the left ventricular cavity, myocardium, and right ventricle from cardiac magnetic resonance images (multi-slice 2-D cine MRI) is a common clinical task to establish diagnosis. The automation of the corresponding tasks has thus been the subject of intense research over the past decades. In this paper, we introduce the "Automatic Cardiac Diagnosis Challenge" dataset (ACDC), the largest publicly available and fully annotated dataset for the purpose of cardiac MRI (CMR) assessment. The dataset contains data from 150 multi-equipments CMRI recordings with reference measurements and classification from two medical experts. The overarching objective of this paper is to measure how far state-of-the-art deep learning methods can go at assessing CMRI, i.e., segmenting the myocardium and the two ventricles as well as classifying pathologies. In the wake of the 2017 MICCAI-ACDC challenge, we report results from deep learning methods provided by nine research groups for the segmentation task and four groups for the classification task. Results show that the best methods faithfully reproduce the expert analysis, leading to a mean value of 0.97 correlation score for the automatic extraction of clinical indices and an accuracy of 0.96 for automatic diagnosis. These results clearly open the door to highly accurate and fully automatic analysis of cardiac CMRI. We also identify scenarios for which deep learning methods are still failing. Both the dataset and detailed results are publicly available online, while the platform will remain open for new submissions.

Macrophages are a diverse set of cells present in all body compartments. This diversity is imprinted by their ontogenetic origin (embryonal versus adult bone marrow-derived cells); the organ context; by their activation or deactivation by various signals in the contexts of microbial invasion, tissue damage, and metabolic derangement; and by polarization of adaptive T cell responses. Classic adaptive responses of macrophages include tolerance, priming, and a wide spectrum of activation states, including M1, M2, or M2-like. Moreover, macrophages can retain long-term imprinting of microbial encounters (trained innate immunity). Single-cell analysis of mononuclear phagocytes in health and disease has added a new dimension to our understanding of the diversity of macrophage differentiation and activation. Epigenetic landscapes, transcription factors, and microRNA networks underlie the adaptability of macrophages to different environmental cues. Macrophage plasticity, an essential component of chronic inflammation, and its involvement in diverse human diseases, most notably cancer, is discussed here as a paradigm.

William harvey, when studying the circulation of the blood, must have recognized that "In sound and living vessels the blood remains fluid, but it coagulates in dead ones" (Ernst Brücke, 1857). Joseph Lister (1909) provided further evidence for an active role of blood vessels in maintaining the liquidity of blood. The vascular endothelium, which envelops the circulating blood in a continuous monolayer, is mainly responsible for this function.Over the past 20 years numerous other important functions have been discovered. For instance, the outer surface of the endothelial cell contains angiotensin-converting enzyme, which catalyzes the formation of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin . . .

An estimated 2.6 million third trimester stillbirths occurred in 2015 (uncertainty range 2.4-3.0 million). The number of stillbirths has reduced more slowly than has maternal mortality or mortality in children younger than 5 years, which were explicitly targeted in the Millennium Development Goals. The Every Newborn Action Plan has the target of 12 or fewer stillbirths per 1000 births in every country by 2030. 94 mainly high-income countries and upper middle-income countries have already met this target, although with noticeable disparities. At least 56 countries, particularly in Africa and in areas affected by conflict, will have to more than double present progress to reach this target. Most (98%) stillbirths are in low-income and middle-income countries. Improved care at birth is essential to prevent 1.3 million (uncertainty range 1.2-1.6 million) intrapartum stillbirths, end preventable maternal and neonatal deaths, and improve child development. Estimates for stillbirth causation are impeded by various classification systems, but for 18 countries with reliable data, congenital abnormalities account for a median of only 7.4% of stillbirths. Many disorders associated with stillbirths are potentially modifiable and often coexist, such as maternal infections (population attributable fraction: malaria 8.0% and syphilis 7.7%), non-communicable diseases, nutrition and lifestyle factors (each about 10%), and maternal age older than 35 years (6.7%). Prolonged pregnancies contribute to 14.0% of stillbirths. Causal pathways for stillbirth frequently involve impaired placental function, either with fetal growth restriction or preterm labour, or both. Two-thirds of newborns have their births registered. However, less than 5% of neonatal deaths and even fewer stillbirths have death registration. Records and registrations of all births, stillbirths, neonatal, and maternal deaths in a health facility would substantially increase data availability. Improved data alone will not save lives but provide a way to target interventions to reach more than 7000 women every day worldwide who experience the reality of stillbirth.

Summary Genetic variants that inactivate protein-coding genes are a powerful source of information about the phenotypic consequences of gene disruption: genes critical for an organism’s function will be depleted for such variants in natural populations, while non-essential genes will tolerate their accumulation. However, predicted loss-of-function (pLoF) variants are enriched for annotation errors, and tend to be found at extremely low frequencies, so their analysis requires careful variant annotation and very large sample sizes 1 . Here, we describe the aggregation of 125,748 exomes and 15,708 genomes from human sequencing studies into the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD). We identify 443,769 high-confidence pLoF variants in this cohort after filtering for sequencing and annotation artifacts. Using an improved human mutation rate model, we classify human protein-coding genes along a spectrum representing tolerance to inactivation, validate this classification using data from model organisms and engineered human cells, and show that it can be used to improve gene discovery power for both common and rare diseases.

Constitutive cyclooxygenase (COX-1; prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase, EC 1.14.99.1) is present in cells under physiological conditions, whereas COX-2 is induced by some cytokines, mitogens, and endotoxin presumably in pathological conditions, such as inflammation. Therefore, we have assessed the relative inhibitory effects of some nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs on the activities of COX-1 (in bovine aortic endothelial cells) and COX-2 (in endotoxin-activated J774.2 macrophages) in intact cells, broken cells, and purified enzyme preparations (COX-1 in sheep seminal vesicles; COX-2 in sheep placenta). Similar potencies of aspirin, indomethacin, and ibuprofen against the broken cell and purified enzyme preparations indicated no influence of species. Aspirin, indomethacin, and ibuprofen were more potent inhibitors of COX-1 than COX-2 in all models used. The relative potencies of aspirin and indomethacin varied only slightly between models, although the IC50 values were different. Ibuprofen was more potent as an inhibitor of COX-2 in intact cells than in either broken cells or purified enzymes. Sodium salicylate was a weak inhibitor of both COX isoforms in intact cells and was inactive against COX in either broken cells or purified enzyme preparations. Diclofenac, BW 755C, acetaminophen, and naproxen were approximately equipotent inhibitors of COX-1 and COX-2 in intact cells. BF 389, an experimental drug currently being tested in humans, was the most potent and most selective inhibitor of COX-2 in intact cells. Thus, there are clear pharmacological differences between the two enzymes. The use of such models of COX-1 and COX-2 activity will lead to the identification of selective inhibitors of COX-2 with presumably less side effects than present therapies. Some inhibitors had higher activity in intact cells than against purified enzymes, suggesting that pure enzyme preparations may not be predictive of therapeutic action.

Abbreviations ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme; BP: blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate; ESC: European Society of Cardiology; ESH: European Society of Hypertension; ET: endothelin; IMT: carotid intima-media thickness; JNC: Joint National Committee; LVH: left ventricular hypertrophy; LVM: left ventricular mass; PDE-5: phosphodiesterase-5; PPAR-γ: peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor-γ; PWV: pulse wave velocity; SBP: systolic blood pressure; WHO: World Health Organization. Introduction In the 2 years since the publication of the 2007 guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) [1], research on hypertension has actively been pursued and the results of new important studies (including several large randomized trials of antihypertensive therapy) have been published. Some of these studies have reinforced the evidence on which the recommendations of the 2007 ESH/ESC guidelines were based. However, other studies have widened the information available in 2007, modifying some of the previous concepts, and suggesting that new evidence-based recommendations could be appropriate. The aim of this document of the ESH is to address a number of studies on hypertension published in the last 2 years in order to assess their contribution to our expanding knowledge of hypertension. Furthermore, some critical appraisal of the current recommendations of the ESH/ESC, as well as of other guidelines, might be a useful step toward the preparation of a third version of the European guidelines in the future. The most important conclusions are summarized in boxes. The points that will be discussed are reported in Box 1.Box. 1Assessment of subclinical organ damage for stratification of total cardiovascular risk The 2007 ESH/ESC guidelines recommend total cardiovascular risk be evaluated in each patient to decide about important aspects of treatment: the blood pressure (BP) threshold at which to commence drug administration, the target BP to be reached by treatment, the use of two-drug combinations as the initial treatment step, and the possible addition to the antihypertensive treatment regimen of lipid-lowering and antiplatelet agents [1]. Among the criteria to assess total cardiovascular risk, the European guidelines consider subclinical organ damage to be a very important component, because asymptomatic alterations of the cardiovascular system and the kidney are crucial intermediate stages in the disease continuum that links risk factors such as hypertension to cardiovascular events and death. On the basis of a number of criteria (prognostic importance, prevalence in the population, availability and cost of the assessment procedures, etc.), the 2007 European guidelines considered detection of organ damage as important for the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of hypertensive patients. They further subdivided the different types of organ damage into (1) those that can be identified by relatively simple and cheap procedures [electrocardiogram, serum creatinine, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), and measurement of urinary protein excretion in order to detect microalbuminuria or proteinuria], which were thus regarded as suitable for routine search in the whole hypertensive population, and (2) those that require more complex procedures or instrumentations (echocardiogram, carotid ultrasonography, pulse wave velocity), which were for this reason only recommended for a more in-depth characterization of the hypertensive patient. Since then, other studies have added useful information on the importance of detecting subclinical organ damage in the hypertensive population, strengthening the recommendation to use the most easily available and the least costly procedures in the routine examination of individuals with hypertension. Heart A few recent papers have revived interest in the power of the electrocardiogram to predict the risk of cardiovascular events. In a prospective survey including 7495 American adults, a new indicator of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), the Novacode estimate of left ventricular mass index that is based on both voltage and strain pattern criteria, has been reported to be significantly related to 10-year cardiovascular mortality [2]. The relation remained significant after adjusting for age, SBP, smoking, cholesterol, and diabetes. Furthermore, in the LIFE trial, the investigators have reported that in hypertensive patients with electrocardiographic LVH, left bundle branch block identifies individuals at increased risk of cardiovascular mortality (hazard ratio 1.6), sudden cardiovascular death (hazard ratio 3.5), and hospitalization for heart failure (hazard ratio 1.7) [3]. Finally, a very recent prospective study [4] focused on the R-wave voltage in lead aVL as being rather closely associated with left ventricular mass (LVM), and additionally predictive of incident cardiovascular events even when hypertension is not accompanied by electrocardiographic LVH (9% higher risk for each 0.1 mV higher R-wave). Additional evidence is also available on the predictive power of cardiac abnormalities, as detected by echocardiography, an approach of continuing interest because of its ability to more directly and precisely quantify LVM and geometric LVH patterns. A retrospective study has recently updated information from more than 35 000 normotensive and hypertensive participants with normal left ventricular ejection fraction [5]. Despite normal left ventricular function, an abnormal left ventricular geometric pattern was found in 46% of the patients (35% left ventricular concentric remodeling and 11% LVH), and the associated risk of all-cause mortality was twice as large as that of patients with normal left ventricular geometry. Although in another study on an African–American population, the relationship between left ventricular geometric patterns and all-cause mortality was markedly attenuated after adjusting for baseline variables, and remained significant only in men [6], the increased risk associated with LVH has been confirmed by other observations. In a prospective study on a cohort of 1652 Greek hypertensive patients followed up for 6 years, echocardiographic LVH was significantly associated with either a composite of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events (hazard ratio 1.53) and with stroke (hazard ratio 2.01), after adjustment for major cardiovascular risk factors [7]. Furthermore, a retrospective analysis of 1447 Japanese hypertensive patients who participated in the CASE-J trial showed that cardiovascular events occurred about 2.6 times more frequently in patients with a LVM index 125 g/m2 or more compared with those with a LVM index below this value [8]. Finally, in the PAMELA population, echocardiographic LVH was associated with a four-fold to five-fold significant increase in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality when data were adjusted for a large number of potential confounders, including office, home, and ambulatory BP values. A 10% increase in LVM increased the risk more markedly when baseline LVM was already abnormal, but an increasing risk was evident also when calculated from LVM values within the normal range [9]. Blood vessels The relationship of carotid intima–media thickness (IMT) and plaques with subsequent cardiovascular events, already discussed in the 2007 guidelines, has been further strengthened by data from ELSA [10], which have shown that baseline carotid IMT predicts cardiovascular events independent of BP (clinic and ambulatory) and this occurs both for the IMT value at the carotid bifurcations and for the IMT value at the level of the common carotid artery. This suggests that both atherosclerosis (reflected by the IMT value at the bifurcations) and vascular hypertrophy (reflected by the common carotid IMT) exert an adverse prognostic effect in addition to that of high BP. An adverse prognostic significance of carotid plaques (hazard ratio 2.3) has also been reported in a sample of residents of the Copenhagen County free of overt cardiovascular disease, which was prospectively followed for about 13 years [11]. Evidence has also accrued on the adverse prognostic value of arterial stiffening. In the Copenhagen County population, an increased pulse wave velocity (PWV >12 m/s) was associated with a 50% increase in the risk of a cardiovascular event [11]. Furthermore, an independent predictive value of PWV for cardiovascular events has been shown in Japanese men followed for 8.2 years [12]. Finally, indirect indices of aortic stiffness and wave reflection, such as central BP and augmentation index, have been confirmed as independent predictors of cardiovascular events in two recent studies [13,14]. In particular, in one of these studies of 1272 normotensive and untreated hypertensive patients, only central SBP consistently and independently predicted cardiovascular mortality after adjustment for various cardiovascular risk factors, including LVM and carotid IMT [14]. However, it should be emphasized that in most available studies, the additive predictive value of central BP beyond brachial pressure appears limited, which leaves the question whether central BP measurements should be regularly considered in the clinical profiling of hypertensive patients in need of further investigation. Kidney Several new data [15] reinforce the already solid evidence on the prognostic value of eGFR that was available at the time of the 2007 guidelines [1]. In the population of Gubbio (Italy), an eGFR in the lowest decile was associated with a significantly higher incidence of cardiovascular events (hazard ratio 2.14) [16], and in the above-mentioned Greek study [7], an eGFR between 15 and 59 ml/min per 1.73 m2 was associated with a 66% increase in the composite endpoint of all cause mortality and cardiovascular events after adjustment for baseline cardiovascular risk and independent of LVH [7]. Likewise, in a post hoc analysis of data from the VALUE trial [17], eGFR according to the MDRD formula was significantly predictive of all outcomes except stroke (with hazard ratios between 1.23 and 1.70 according to the different outcomes) and was more sensitive than calculation of the creatinine clearance value according to the Cockroft–Gault formula, which was only predictive of all-cause mortality. The baseline eGFR by the MDRD formula turned out to be importantly predictive of both renal and cardiovascular events also in the large number (n = 11 140) of type 2 diabetic patients included in the ADVANCE trial, even when data were adjusted for many potential confounders, including the concomitant urinary protein excretion value. For every 50% reduction of baseline eGFR the risk of cardiovascular events significantly increased 2.2-fold, the concomitant increase in the risk of cardiovascular death and renal events being 3.6-fold and 63.6-fold, respectively [18]. New evidence is also available to support the already large amount of data in favor of the prognostic value of the moderate increase in urinary protein excretion, defined as microalbuminuria [19,20]. In two population studies, the Gubbio study [16] and the Copenhagen County study [11], microalbuminuria was confirmed as an important predictor of cardiovascular outcome, the adjusted hazard ratio being, respectively, 2.15-fold and 3.10-fold greater in patients with microalbuminuria compared with those without. In the Gubbio study, the association of microalbuminuria with low eGFR had a multiplicative effect (hazard ratio 5.93). In the ADVANCE trial [18], a change from one clinical stage of albuminuria to the next was associated with a 1.6-fold, 2.0-fold, and 3.3-fold increase in the multivariate-adjusted risk of cardiovascular events, cardiovascular death, and renal events, respectively, this being the case also when the change from normoalbuminuria to microalbuminuria was involved. The effects of higher baseline urinary protein excretion and reduced eGFR were independent of each other and the association of microalbuminuria and an eGFR value less than 60 ml/min per 1.73 m2 brought about an additional increase in risk: 3.2-fold for cardiovascular events, 5.9-fold for cardiovascular mortality, and 22.2-fold for renal events. Additional measures of organ damage The 2007 European guidelines mention a number of additional measures of organ damage for which evidence of prognostic relevance was available, but no use in the clinical practice could be foreseen because of drawbacks of practical relevance, such as the high cost and low availability of the devices involved, the complexity and time consumption inherent in the procedures, and in several instances the lack of standardization of the values obtained between laboratories and across countries. Based on the evidence available in the last 2 years, no addition to the measures of organ damage included in the 2007 guidelines can be supported, although the growing availability of more sophisticated techniques and the reduced cost of their use brought about by technological progress, makes future additions likely. In this context, the use of nuclear magnetic resonance deserves special mention. Although not prospective in nature, a very recent study systematically employing nuclear magnetic resonance imaging in a group of 142 hypertensive patients without overt cardiovascular disease has provided the interesting information that silent cerebrovascular lesions are even more prevalent (44%) than cardiac (21%) and renal (26%) subclinical damage, and do frequently occur in the absence of other signs of organ damage [21]. Increasing evidence also relates these lesions to cognitive dysfunction [22,23], a problem of primary importance because of the senescence of the population [24]. With magnetic resonance imaging becoming more and more frequently employed in diagnostic procedures, silent cerebrovascular disease is likely to become more frequently investigated in prognostic and therapeutic studies in hypertension. The prognostic value of structural alterations in small subcutaneous arteries has recently been confirmed by two independent studies [25,26]. However, the invasive nature of this measurement prevents larger scale application of this method. A new noninvasive method for assessing the media–lumen ratio of small retinal arteries seems promising for large-scale evaluation [27], although its predictive value remains to be investigated. Evidence remains inconclusive on a marker of a vascular alteration that has been actively investigated in the past decade, namely endothelial dysfunction. In a population sample of individuals without overt cardiovascular disease (67% with hypertension and 22% with diabetes mellitus) from the Northern Manhattan study, measures of flow-mediated vasodilatation predicted the incidence of cardiovascular events, but this effect was not independent of traditional cardiovascular risk factors [28]. Likewise, in the large cohort of elderly patients of the Cardiovascular Health Study, flow-mediated vasodilatation added very little to the prognostic accuracy of traditional risk factors [29]. On the contrary, Muiesan et al.[30] have recently reported that in a small cohort (n = 172) of uncomplicated hypertensive persons followed for about 8 years, flow-mediated vasodilatation of the brachial artery below the median value was significantly associated with a 2.7-fold increase in incident cardiovascular events even after adjusting for all major cardiovascular risk factors. However, the same group of investigators also have reported that endothelial dysfunction in the subcutaneous vessels of hypertensive patients was not predictive of cardiovascular events [31], possibly because endothelial dysfunction in different vascular beds may have a different prognostic significance. Clearly, the prognostic value of endothelial dysfunction in hypertension remains to be further elucidated. It should be emphasized that the addition of new measures of organ damage to the assessment of total cardiovascular risk requires not only the demonstration of their prognostic importance, but it has to improve the power to predict the incidence of cardiovascular events. This is by no means easy to be documented, and indeed data are available that in some instances new risk factors of individual prognostic significance do not improve, when added to the others, the accuracy by which cardiovascular risk can be quantified, thus only making the diagnostic procedures more complex, time consuming, and costly. This is exemplified by the recent results of the Framingham study, which showed that inclusion of inflammatory markers did not lead to any substantial improvement in the accuracy (sensitivity and specificity) by which total cardiovascular risk was assessed [32]. Subclinical organ damage as a marker of high cardiovascular risk Although subclinical organ damage undoubtedly increases the level of cardiovascular risk, the question arises whether it always brings the patient into the high-risk category, that is, an absolute risk of at least 20 cardiovascular events in 10 years per 100 patients. The 2007 European guidelines classify hypertensive patients with subclinical organ damage among those with a high total cardiovascular risk. This is further supported by more recent evidence on the contribution of subclinical cardiac, vascular, and renal damage to the total cardiovascular risk. As regards to subclinical cardiac damage, analysis of the data provided by some of the major prospective studies indicates that in hypertensive patients, echocardiographic LVH, particularly if of the concentric variety, is associated with an incidence of cardiovascular events equal to or above 20% in 10 years [5,7,33]. An incidence greater than 20% in 10 years has also been reported for men, but not for women, with echocardiographic LVH in the Framingham population study [34]. Finally, in the hypertensive patients of the CASE-J trial, echocardiographic LVH was associated with a 10-year incidence of cardiovascular events of 24% compared with the 10% incidence seen in patients without LVH [8]. Similar evidence exists for vascular damage. In the elderly patients of the Cardiovascular Health Study [35], the 10-year incidence of major cardiovascular events was higher than 20% when the common carotid IMT was 1.06 mm or more (fourth and fifth quintiles) and below 10% in those with an IMT in the first quintile (<0.87 mm). In the hypertensive patients of the ELSA study [10], the incidence of all (major and minor) cardiovascular events was greater than 20% in 10 years when IMT (common carotid plus bifurcation) was in the third and fourth quartiles (≥1.16 mm) or when at least one plaque had been detected. In contrast, patients with IMT in the first or the smallest IMT quartile (<0.98 mm) had incident cardiovascular events below 10% in 10 years. In hypertensive patients, the 10-year incidence of major cardiovascular events was higher than 20% when carotid-femoral PWV (aortic stiffness) was 16.3 m/s or more (fifth quintile) and below 10% in those with an aortic stiffness in the first and second quintiles [36]. Furthermore, even asymptomatic peripheral vascular disease as detected by a positive ankle-brachial index has prospectively been found to be associated in men with an incidence of cardiovascular events approaching 20% in 10 years [37,38]. Finally, old and recent evidence leaves little doubt that in hypertensive individuals, renal subclinical organ damage is associated with a 10-year risk of cardiovascular events of 20% or more. It has already been reported some years ago that reduced renal function, defined by a serum creatinine more than 1.5 mg/dl is associated with a 10-year incidence of cardiovascular events 20% or more [39,40]. In the recent prospective cohort of Greek hypertensive patients [7], a low eGFR was associated with incident cardiovascular events of about 20% in 10 years, an even higher incidence being observed when low eGFR occurred together with LVH. Furthermore, in the hypertensive patients prospectively studied by Jensen et al.[41], the incidence of ischemic heart disease was 20% in 10 years in the presence of microalbuminuria and of only 5% in its absence. Also, in the Gubbio population study, the incidence of cardiovascular events was greater than 20% in 10 years, but only in those individuals in whom microalbuminuria in the highest decile was associated with eGFR in the lowest decile [16]. Over 78% of these patients had hypertension. The 2007 European guidelines classify patients with subclinical organ damage as being at high risk also when BP is in the high normal range, but admittedly evidence that this is invariably the case is less clear. In the general population of the Framingham study, no information was made available on the prognostic value of echographic LVH, separately in the normotensive and hypertensive population [34]. Furthermore, in the same population, the association of renal dysfunction with cardiovascular events was lost after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors, including BP [42]. In the PREVEND population study [43], microalbuminuria (20–200 mg/l) was associated with only a 4.7% cardiovascular mortality in 10 years, that is, a moderate absolute risk according to the SCORE classification [44], and in the nonhypertensive, nondiabetic individuals of the Framingham study, a microalbuminuria above the median value was associated with a rate of incident cardiovascular events of only 8.8% in 10 years compared with a 2.9% rate in individuals with microalbuminuria below the median value [45]. Prognostic value of treatment-induced modifications of subclinical organ damage The 2007 European guidelines have emphasized that treatment-induced changes of organ damage affect the incidence of cardiovascular events, thereby recommending that organ damage be measured also during treatment. Reference was made to the data obtained in the LIFE study [46], in which hypertensive patients in whom treatment was accompanied by regression of echocardiographic LVH or a delayed increase in LVM had less incident cardiovascular events, including sudden death, than those in whom no regression from or earlier progression to LVH occurred. It was also mentioned that both in LIFE [47] and in other studies [48], a similar relationship was found between treatment-induced changes in and renal or cardiovascular events. This means compared with patients in whom treatment had little or no reduction in was associated with a reduced incidence of cardiovascular events and less progression to renal Since 2007, data on the relationship between treatment-induced changes in cardiac damage and cardiovascular have been by further of the LIFE study, which have shown that also treatment-induced changes in left left ventricular and in electrocardiographic signs of LVH with incident cardiovascular event rate Furthermore, have been that in changes in LVM during treatment affect cardiovascular Finally, the predictive power of treatment-induced IMT changes in the carotid arteries has for the first time been investigated in a recent analysis of ELSA trial This analysis to a predictive of IMT but the of these changes compared with the large individual in baseline IMT makes it to conclusions The of treatment-induced changes in with cardiovascular event incidence has been by some of the In this trial on a large number of high or very high cardiovascular risk patients, the group with a of an angiotensin-converting and an the study less increase in than the group on with one or the other but this effect was not accompanied by a reduction in cardiovascular events and was even associated with an increase in renal events However, these results do not the important that treatment-induced changes in can be a marker of the more or less effects of treatment because for the results are For in most patients had a normal renal and few overt which in a very number of the endpoint that for renal that is, renal Furthermore, in the very high cardiovascular risk population the of the system provided by the and might have an adverse effect of its that and the associated with a reduction in In favor of this are some recent of the ADVANCE study in patients with type 2 diabetes. In these patients, values of showed a independent association with both renal and cardiovascular events, the contribution of being to the concomitant values of eGFR [18]. Evidence on the important prognostic of subclinical organ damage to In both hypertensive patients and the general population, the presence of electrocardiographic and echocardiographic LVH, a carotid plaque or an increased arterial a reduced eGFR by the MDRD or microalbuminuria or increases the total cardiovascular risk, hypertensive patients into the high absolute risk The changes in or detected LVH by treatment the effects on cardiovascular events, thereby information on whether patients are more or less by the treatment Despite some recent results solid evidence suggests that this is the case also for treatment-induced changes in urinary protein excretion, although the problem remains for treatment-induced vascular assessing the presence of subclinical organ damage is of crucial importance in the hypertensive This assessment can use of simple and cheap procedures that can routine information and at various times during treatment. It can also on more sophisticated that can further cardiac and vascular In all organ damage assessment is useful because of the evidence that in the presence of two signs of organ damage when inherent to the same cardiovascular risk may be more markedly with an to the high cardiovascular risk It is not from published data whether subclinical organ damage can total cardiovascular risk to the high range also in patients with high normal BP. However, organ damage when it is particularly or or is accompanied by risk factors, is associated with a or increase in risk also in normotensive individuals and the 2007 guidelines recommend risk as a for the need of treatment in and patients. In this context, it is also important to that the of organ damage in patients that decide to the of several studies that the incidence of cardiovascular events is higher in than in untreated hypertensive patients even after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors and past clinical This is with the that antihypertensive treatment even if a high total risk to a the that in treatment is organ damage when is not use of organ damage assessment may thus to a more about the of treatment and thus favor its greater Some of the discussed in of subclinical organ damage for stratification of total cardiovascular risk are summarized in Box approach guidelines on the management of hypertension recommend the of antihypertensive in all patients with a SBP or more a or and to the treatment in order for the patients to be below these values. They further recommend drug treatment to be within a BP range, that is, a SBP between and and a between and in patients with diabetes or a of cardiovascular or renal disease, at values The 2007 ESH/ESC guidelines have accompanied these recommendations with information on the evidence are based and a critical of this has recently been by of the in the of further information provided by recent The of the ESH document is to the and the type of evidence on which these recommendations are and thus the and

BACKGROUND: The associations of blood pressure with the different manifestations of incident cardiovascular disease in a contemporary population have not been compared. In this study, we aimed to analyse the associations of blood pressure with 12 different presentations of cardiovascular disease. METHODS: We used linked electronic health records from 1997 to 2010 in the CALIBER (CArdiovascular research using LInked Bespoke studies and Electronic health Records) programme to assemble a cohort of 1·25 million patients, 30 years of age or older and initially free from cardiovascular disease, a fifth of whom received blood pressure-lowering treatments. We studied the heterogeneity in the age-specific associations of clinically measured blood pressure with 12 acute and chronic cardiovascular diseases, and estimated the lifetime risks (up to 95 years of age) and cardiovascular disease-free life-years lost adjusted for other risk factors at index ages 30, 60, and 80 years. This study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01164371. FINDINGS: During 5·2 years median follow-up, we recorded 83,098 initial cardiovascular disease presentations. In each age group, the lowest risk for cardiovascular disease was in people with systolic blood pressure of 90-114 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure of 60-74 mm Hg, with no evidence of a J-shaped increased risk at lower blood pressures. The effect of high blood pressure varied by cardiovascular disease endpoint, from strongly positive to no effect. Associations with high systolic blood pressure were strongest for intracerebral haemorrhage (hazard ratio 1·44 [95% CI 1·32-1·58]), subarachnoid haemorrhage (1·43 [1·25-1·63]), and stable angina (1·41 [1·36-1·46]), and weakest for abdominal aortic aneurysm (1·08 [1·00-1·17]). Compared with diastolic blood pressure, raised systolic blood pressure had a greater effect on angina, myocardial infarction, and peripheral arterial disease, whereas raised diastolic blood pressure had a greater effect on abdominal aortic aneurysm than did raised systolic pressure. Pulse pressure associations were inverse for abdominal aortic aneurysm (HR per 10 mm Hg 0·91 [95% CI 0·86-0·98]) and strongest for peripheral arterial disease (1·23 [1·20-1·27]). People with hypertension (blood pressure ≥140/90 mm Hg or those receiving blood pressure-lowering drugs) had a lifetime risk of overall cardiovascular disease at 30 years of age of 63·3% (95% CI 62·9-63·8) compared with 46·1% (45·5-46·8) for those with normal blood pressure, and developed cardiovascular disease 5·0 years earlier (95% CI 4·8-5·2). Stable and unstable angina accounted for most (43%) of the cardiovascular disease-free years of life lost associated with hypertension from index age 30 years, whereas heart failure and stable angina accounted for the largest proportion (19% each) of years of life lost from index age 80 years. INTERPRETATION: The widely held assumptions that blood pressure has strong associations with the occurrence of all cardiovascular diseases across a wide age range, and that diastolic and systolic associations are concordant, are not supported by the findings of this high-resolution study. Despite modern treatments, the lifetime burden of hypertension is substantial. These findings emphasise the need for new blood pressure-lowering strategies, and will help to inform the design of randomised trials to assess them. FUNDING: Medical Research Council, National Institute for Health Research, and Wellcome Trust.

The beneficial actions of nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) can be associated with inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2 whereas their harmful side effects are associated with inhibition of COX-1. Here we report data from two related assay systems, the human whole blood assay and a modified human whole blood assay (using human A549 cells as a source of COX-2). This assay we refer to as the William Harvey Modified Assay. Our aim was to make meaningful comparisons of both classical NSAIDs and newer COX-2-selective compounds. These comparisons of the actions of >40 NSAIDs and novel COX-2-selective agents, including celecoxib, rofecoxib and diisopropyl fluorophosphate, demonstrate a distribution of compound selectivities toward COX-1 that aligns with the risk of serious gastrointestinal complications. In conclusion, this full in vitro analysis of COX-1/2 selectivities in human tissues clearly supports the theory that inhibition of COX-1 underlies the gastrointestinal toxicity of NSAIDs in man.

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak, caused by SARS-CoV-2, represents the greatest medical challenge in decades. We provide a comprehensive review of the clinical course of COVID-19, its comorbidities, and mechanistic considerations for future therapies. While COVID-19 primarily affects the lungs, causing interstitial pneumonitis and severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), it also affects multiple organs, particularly the cardiovascular system. Risk of severe infection and mortality increase with advancing age and male sex. Mortality is increased by comorbidities: cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, chronic pulmonary disease, and cancer. The most common complications include arrhythmia (atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachyarrhythmia, and ventricular fibrillation), cardiac injury [elevated highly sensitive troponin I (hs-cTnI) and creatine kinase (CK) levels], fulminant myocarditis, heart failure, pulmonary embolism, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Mechanistically, SARS-CoV-2, following proteolytic cleavage of its S protein by a serine protease, binds to the transmembrane angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) -a homologue of ACE-to enter type 2 pneumocytes, macrophages, perivascular pericytes, and cardiomyocytes. This may lead to myocardial dysfunction and damage, endothelial dysfunction, microvascular dysfunction, plaque instability, and myocardial infarction (MI). While ACE2 is essential for viral invasion, there is no evidence that ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) worsen prognosis. Hence, patients should not discontinue their use. Moreover, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors might be beneficial in COVID-19. Initial immune and inflammatory responses induce a severe cytokine storm [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-7, IL-22, IL-17, etc.] during the rapid progression phase of COVID-19. Early evaluation and continued monitoring of cardiac damage (cTnI and NT-proBNP) and coagulation (D-dimer) after hospitalization may identify patients with cardiac injury and predict COVID-19 complications. Preventive measures (social distancing and social isolation) also increase cardiovascular risk. Cardiovascular considerations of therapies currently used, including remdesivir, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, tocilizumab, ribavirin, interferons, and lopinavir/ritonavir, as well as experimental therapies, such as human recombinant ACE2 (rhACE2), are discussed.

Host-mediated lung inflammation is present 1 , and drives mortality 2 , in the critical illness caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Host genetic variants associated with critical illness may identify mechanistic targets for therapeutic development 3 . Here we report the results of the GenOMICC (Genetics Of Mortality In Critical Care) genome-wide association study in 2,244 critically ill patients with COVID-19 from 208 UK intensive care units. We have identified and replicated the following new genome-wide significant associations: on chromosome 12q24.13 (rs10735079, P = 1.65 10 -8 ) in a gene cluster that encodes antiviral restriction enzyme activators (OAS1, OAS2 and OAS3); on chromosome 19p13.2 (rs74956615, P = 2.3 10 -8 ) near the gene that encodes tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2); on chromosome 19p13.3 (rs2109069, P = 3.98 10 -12 ) within the gene that encodes dipeptidyl peptidase 9 (DPP9); and on chromosome 21q22.1 (rs2236757, P = 4.99 10 -8 ) in the interferon receptor gene IFNAR2. We identified potential targets for repurposing of licensed medications: using Mendelian randomization, we found evidence that low expression of IFNAR2, or high expression of TYK2, are associated with life-threatening disease; and transcriptome-wide association in lung tissue revealed that high expression of the monocyte-macrophage chemotactic receptor CCR2 is associated with severe COVID-19. Our results identify robust genetic signals relating to key host antiviral defence mechanisms and mediators of inflammatory organ damage in COVID-19. Both mechanisms may be amenable to targeted treatment with existing drugs. However, large-scale randomized clinical trials will be essential before any change to clinical practice.

Endothelin releases prostacyclin and thromboxane A2 from guinea pig or rat isolated lungs and endothelium-derived relaxing factor in the perfused mesentery of the rat. Endothelin is also substantially removed by the pulmonary circulation of the rat in vitro and in vivo and by guinea pig lungs in vitro. In the rat, the effects of endothelin on the blood pressure vary from pressor (in pithed rats) to purely depressor in anesthetized rats where the resting blood pressure is high. It therefore has the characteristics of a local pressor hormone, rather than a circulating one.